Albert Einstein biography timeline

Albert Einstein is born in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany.

Einstein becomes a Swiss citizen after having been stateless since 1896.

Publishes his first scientific paper, examining molecular forces through capillary phenomena.

Appointed Technical Expert, third class, at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern.

Publishes an early paper developing the kinetic theory of thermal equilibrium using statistical methods.

Publishes further work on the foundations of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics.

Studies fluctuations in radiation energy, an important precursor to his later quantum work.

Sends his light-quantum paper to Annalen der Physik, using quanta to explain the photoelectric effect.

Submits A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions as his doctoral dissertation at the University of Zurich.

Annalen der Physik receives Einstein's paper explaining Brownian motion through molecular collisions.

Submits On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, establishing the special theory of relativity.

The University of Zurich faculty unanimously approves Einstein's doctoral dissertation.

Submits the paper deriving the relation between mass and energy from special relativity.

Explains photoelectric emission by proposing that light transfers energy in discrete quanta to electrons.

The University of Zurich formally awards Einstein his doctorate in physics.

His revised dissertation on molecular dimensions is published in Annalen der Physik.

Publishes a follow-up analysis refining his theory of Brownian motion.

Promoted to Technical Expert, second class, at the Swiss Patent Office.

Publishes work extending the light-quantum hypothesis to the production and absorption of radiation.

Formulates the equivalence principle, a decisive step toward a relativistic theory of gravitation.

Predicts that gravity should shift the frequency of light, later called gravitational redshift.

Applies quantum ideas to the specific heat of solids, an early success of quantum theory.

Begins teaching at the University of Bern as a Privatdozent.

Receives his first honorary doctorate, awarded by the University of Geneva.

Becomes a member of the Physical Society of Zurich.

Presents a major lecture arguing that radiation displays both wave-like and particle-like properties.

Becomes associate professor of theoretical physics at the University of Zurich.

Explains critical opalescence using fluctuations near a liquid-gas critical point.

Predicts that gravity should bend starlight and proposes a solar-eclipse test.

Participates in the first Solvay Conference, discussing radiation and quantum theory with leading physicists.

Becomes professor of theoretical physics at the German University in Prague.

Begins work as professor of theoretical physics at ETH Zurich.

Works with Marcel Grossmann to master tensor calculus for a relativistic theory of gravitation.

Uses the Zurich Notebook to explore candidate gravitational field equations and differential geometry.

Encourages astronomical testing of gravitational light deflection during a solar eclipse.

Collaborates closely with Marcel Grossmann on the mathematical framework of gravitation.

Publishes the Entwurf gravitational theory with Marcel Grossmann as an intermediate step toward general relativity.

Moves to Berlin for a senior research appointment and membership of the Prussian Academy of Sciences.

Publishes work refining the mathematical and covariance problems of his developing gravitational theory.

Co-signs a pacifist appeal opposing wartime nationalism among European intellectuals.

Presents revised gravitational field equations to the Prussian Academy during his final push toward general relativity.

Presents another formulation of gravitation using a restricted coordinate condition with unit determinant.

Explains Mercury's anomalous perihelion advance using the emerging general theory of relativity.

Presents the final generally covariant gravitational field equations to the Prussian Academy.

Elected a corresponding member of the Royal Society of Sciences at Göttingen.

Publishes experimental work with Wander de Haas linking magnetism to angular momentum.

Lectures on gravitation in Göttingen, stimulating intense discussion with leading mathematicians.

Predicts gravitational waves as propagating disturbances in spacetime within general relativity.

Publishes his popular introduction to special and general relativity.

Publishes a systematic presentation of the general theory of relativity and its field equations.

Serves as president of the German Physical Society during the consolidation of general relativity.

Develops a quantum theory of radiation introducing transition probabilities later represented by Einstein coefficients.

Einstein adds the cosmological constant to his gravitational field equations to permit a static universe, creating the mathematical term later associated with dark energy.

Becomes founding director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics.

Applies general relativity to the universe and introduces the cosmological constant in a static cosmological model.

Einstein interprets the cosmological constant as a repulsive contribution capable of balancing ordinary gravitational attraction on the largest cosmic scales.

Formulates stimulated emission in his quantum theory of radiation, a principle later fundamental to lasers.

Refines gravitational-wave theory and derives the quadrupole form for radiated energy.

Returns to Zurich for guest lectures while continuing work on relativity and quantum theory.

British eclipse expeditions photograph stars near the Sun to test Einstein's predicted gravitational deflection.

Royal Society and Royal Astronomical Society report eclipse results supporting Einstein's general relativity.

Becomes internationally famous after eclipse observations are widely reported as confirming general relativity.

Delivers the lecture Ether and the Theory of Relativity, redefining the concept in gravitational terms.

Begins official duties as special professor at Leiden University.

Publicly confronts organized attacks on relativity amid growing political and antisemitic hostility.

Arrives in New York during his first visit to the United States, including lectures and fundraising.

Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society.

Receives an honorary Doctor of Science degree from the University of Manchester and lectures on relativity.

Uses his first American visit to support fundraising for the future Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical physics, especially the law of the photoelectric effect.

Delivers four Stafford Little Lectures explaining special and general relativity.

Explains how he developed the theory of relativity in a lecture at Kyoto University.

Begins sustained attempts to combine gravitation and electromagnetism within a single field framework.

Travels through Japan giving lectures and public talks on relativity and modern physics.

The Meaning of Relativity is published from the four lectures Einstein delivered at Princeton in May 1921.

Lectures in French on relativity during his visit to British Mandate Palestine.

Gives a second Jerusalem lecture on relativity, this time in German.

Becomes a corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Exact, Physical and Natural Sciences in Madrid.

Receives an honorary doctorate in science from the University of Madrid.

Is admitted to the Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts.

Delivers his Nobel lecture on fundamental ideas and problems of relativity.

Spends an extended period in Leiden amid political threats in Germany, continuing scientific work.

Accepts election as a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Translates Satyendra Nath Bose's paper on Planck's law into German and arranges its publication.

Predicts that ideal bosonic particles can accumulate in the lowest quantum state at low temperature.

Extends Bose's statistical method from photons to particles of an ideal gas.

The Einstein Tower begins operation as a solar observatory designed to test relativistic effects.

Awarded the Royal Society's Copley Medal for relativity and contributions to quantum theory.

Joins the administrative council of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Engages critically with the emerging matrix and wave formulations of quantum mechanics.

Publishes further work on the quantum theory of the ideal monatomic gas.

Tours Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil, giving lectures and meeting scientific and civic audiences.

Receives the Royal Astronomical Society Gold Medal for relativity and the theory of gravitation.

Works with Leo Szilard on safer refrigerator designs without moving mechanical parts.

Collaborates with Emil Rupp on proposed tests of whether atomic radiation behaves as waves or quanta.

Studies and discusses Schrödinger's wave mechanics while questioning its physical interpretation.

Challenges Niels Bohr with thought experiments testing the completeness of quantum mechanics.

Participates in the fifth Solvay Conference and debates the interpretation of quantum mechanics.

Investigates with Jakob Grommer whether particle motion can follow directly from gravitational field equations.

Receives an invitation to accept a research professorship at Princeton University.

Employs Helen Dukas as his secretary and assistant, beginning a long professional association.

Patent work with Leo Szilard advances an absorption refrigerator using electromagnetic pumping concepts.

Develops a unified-field approach using distant parallelism, also called teleparallel geometry.

Receives the inaugural Max Planck Medal for outstanding achievement in theoretical physics.

Publishes a widely publicized unified-field theory based on teleparallel geometry.

Receives an honorary Doctor of Science degree from ETH Zurich.

Begins an extended academic visit to the California Institute of Technology.

Attends the sixth Solvay Conference and continues discussions on quantum theory and field physics.

Receives an honorary Doctor of Science degree from the University of Oxford.

Adopts an expanding cosmological model and abandons the need for his earlier static-universe construction.

Gives three Rhodes Memorial Lectures on relativity, cosmology and his latest work in theoretical physics.

Receives the Prix Jules Janssen for distinguished work in astronomy and astrophysics.

Einstein abandons the need for a static cosmological model after cosmic expansion becomes established, leaving the cosmological constant without its original motivation.

Becomes a member of the German Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina.

With Willem de Sitter, proposes a simple expanding cosmological model with zero cosmological constant.

Accepts appointment to the newly founded Institute for Advanced Study.

Resigns from the Prussian Academy of Sciences after deciding not to return to Nazi Germany.

Lectures at Oxford on the methods and foundations of theoretical physics.

Settles in the United States after the Nazi rise to power and joins the Institute for Advanced Study.

Renounces German citizenship after the Nazi seizure of power while retaining Swiss citizenship.

Delivers the Gibbs Lecture on an elementary proof of the equivalence of mass and energy.

Publishes reflections on how fundamental theoretical physics develops from principles and mathematical structure.

Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen publish their argument that quantum mechanics may not provide a complete description of physical reality.

Receives the Franklin Medal in recognition of his work in relativity and the photoelectric effect.

With Nathan Rosen, studies bridge solutions in general relativity connecting two sheets of spacetime.

Files a declaration of intention to become a citizen of the United States.

Publishes a calculation showing how a foreground star can gravitationally lens light from a background star.

Works with Leopold Infeld and Banesh Hoffmann on deriving equations of motion from general relativity.

Einstein and Rosen publish a corrected paper showing cylindrical gravitational-wave solutions.

Publishes work deriving approximate equations of motion for gravitating bodies from general relativity.

Publishes The Evolution of Physics with Leopold Infeld for a broad readership.

Signs the Einstein-Szilard letter warning President Roosevelt about uranium chain reactions and possible powerful bombs.

Writes again to President Roosevelt urging stronger attention to uranium research developments.

Sends another letter to Roosevelt concerning the need for effective action on uranium research.

Becomes a United States citizen while retaining Swiss citizenship.

Signs a letter drafted by Leo Szilard seeking a presidential meeting on nuclear policy; Roosevelt dies before receiving it.

After the atomic bombings, speaks publicly about the political and ethical dangers of nuclear weapons.

Helps form and chairs the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists to promote public education and international control.

Presents a new draft of field equations for his continuing general field theory program.

Supports public education campaigns on atomic energy, disarmament and international control.

Publishes a generalized theory of gravitation during his continuing search for a unified field theory.

Publishes Autobiographical Notes, reflecting on the development of his scientific ideas and philosophy.

Presents and revises his mature attempts to construct a unified classical field theory.

Publishes a collection of essays on science, society, philosophy and public affairs.

Refines asymmetric-field approaches intended to combine gravitation and electromagnetism.

Declines the offer to become president of Israel, citing lack of aptitude and experience for official duties.

Albert Einstein dies in Princeton, New Jersey, aged 76.

Signs Bertrand Russell's appeal warning of nuclear war and urging peaceful resolution of international disputes.