1648 in History

Ireton helps shape the Army Remonstrance demanding justice against Charles I after the renewed fighting of the Second Civil War.

The Army siezes Charles I

Cromwell defeats the Scottish-Royalist invasion Army led by Hamilton

Captured near Uttoxeter

Pride's troops arrest dozens of MPs during the purge that leaves the reduced House later known as the Rump Parliament.

Demonstrates that atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude.

Rainsborough is ordered north to take command around the Royalist stronghold of Pontefract during renewed resistance.

Expels 140 Presbyterians & Royalists from Parliament, creating the rump Parliament

Worried her son will be a "cardboard King". Signs a declaration granting further reform

Lucas is condemned after Colchester's surrender for returning to arms despite an earlier undertaking not to fight Parliament again.

Attempts to form a provisional Government around the Independent Members of Parliament

In the wake of the ejections from the Long Parliament, the remnant, the Rump Parliament, arranges for the trial and execution of Charles I

In the wake of the ejections from the Long Parliament, the remnant, the Rump Parliament, arranges for the trial and execution of Charles I

Lucas is executed after Colchester's surrender as Parliament punishes renewed Royalist resistance.

Rainsborough's funeral becomes a mass Leveller demonstration in London, with supporters using sea-green ribbons as political symbols

Leads an inexperienced Army into England

Joins Hamiltons expedition into England

Rainsborough is killed at Doncaster after becoming identified with the Leveller cause, and his funeral later becomes a large Leveller demonstration in London

Thomas Rainsborough is killed in Doncaster; he was a Member of Parliament and Leveller sympathiser who had spoken at the Putney Debates, and his funeral later becomes a large Leveller-led demonstration in London

Walwyn is associated with the London Leveller leadership as supporters present a major petition to Parliament demanding political and legal reforms grounded in popular liberties

Divisions emerge culminating in Prides Purge when, under the orders of Oliver Cromwell's son-in-law Henry Ireton, Colonel Pride physically bars about half of the members of Parliament from taking their seats

Divisions emerge culminating in Prides Purge when, under the orders of Oliver Cromwell's son-in-law Henry Ireton, Colonel Pride physically bars about half of the members of Parliament from taking their seats

Rainsborough receives naval command as Parliament confronts unrest and Royalist sympathy within sections of the fleet.

Lambert commands Parliamentarian forces against renewed Royalist resistance in northern England during the Second Civil War.

Following his Treaty with the Scots Parliament renounces allegiance to Charles I

Opposes Colonel Thomas Prides purge of Parliament

Expels 140 Presbyterians & Royalists from Parliament, creating the rump Parliament

Signs the peace Treaty which ends the Thirty Years War

Receives restoration while Sweden gains nearby imperial territory.

Receives compensation after sustained Protestant warfare.

Gains Hersfeld as part of Hesse-Kassel's compensation.

Gains parts of Schaumburg in the postwar settlement.

The regency gains prestige from a favourable peace settlement.

Maintains the Catholic ecclesiastical electorate within the settlement.

Represents Spanish interests in negotiations with the Dutch Republic.

Recovers the Lower Palatinate and receives a restored electoral title.

Sweden is recognised as a guarantor of the settlement.

Restores Wurttemberg lands after years of imperial and wartime losses.

Habsburg control in Bohemia remains intact after the settlement.

Accepts the settlement that ends the Thirty Years War and reshapes imperial authority.

Begins reign as the Westphalian settlement changes north German politics.

Begins ruling Denmark as the Westphalian settlement alters north German politics.

His heirs regain part of the Palatinate after the war begun by his Bohemian claim.

Receives Farther Pomerania after compromise with Sweden.

Receives Halberstadt as compensation for lost Pomeranian claims.

Receives Minden as part of postwar compensation.

Gains compensation that strengthens Brandenburg after the war.

Saxony's possessions are confirmed but Brandenburg gains influence.

Works on imperial legal terms at Osnabruck.

Represents imperial interests in negotiations with Sweden.

France gains influence in Alsace and along the Rhine.

Keeps the electoral dignity gained during the war.

Retains the Upper Palatinate in the peace settlement.

Secures French gains while continuing the separate war against Spain.

Negotiates French interests during the peace congress at Munster.

Serves the imperial delegation in the Munster negotiations.

Rules as Spain recognises the sovereignty of the Dutch Republic.

Leads the French delegation during the Westphalian negotiations.

His wartime policy is rewarded by Swedish territorial gains.

Leads Sweden's delegation in negotiations with the Empire.

Helps secure Spanish recognition of Dutch independence.

Bruges remains in the Spanish Netherlands after the Peace of Westphalia.

Recognises the independence of the Dutch Republic in the Treaty of Munster.

Serves on the Dutch delegation at Munster.

Helps secure Swedish compensation and imperial rights.

Represents Mainz among Catholic estates willing to compromise.

Supports compromise intended to stabilise the Empire after the war.

Works for French recognition of territorial rights in Alsace.

Trier's position is confirmed after years of French and imperial pressure.

Heads the imperial delegation during decisive phases of negotiation.

Represents imperial interests in negotiations with France.

Represents hardline Catholic interests during the negotiations.

Helps secure recognition of Swiss independence from imperial jurisdiction.

Commands Swedish forces as the German war reaches settlement.

Leveller supporters present a large London petition to Parliament demanding reforms associated with the Agreement of the People

Pride excludes MPs considered hostile to the army and clears the way for the king's trial.

Pride stations soldiers outside the Commons and begins excluding members considered likely to continue negotiations with Charles I.

Divisions emerge culminating in Prides Purge when, under the orders of Oliver Cromwell's son-in-law Henry Ireton, Colonel Pride physically bars about half of the members of Parliament from taking their seats

Divisions emerge culminating in Prides Purge when, under the orders of Oliver Cromwell's son-in-law Henry Ireton, Colonel Pride physically bars about half of the members of Parliament from taking their seats

Expels 140 Presbyterians & Royalists from Parliament, creating the rump Parliament. Divisions emerge culminating in Prides Purge when, under the orders of Oliver Cromwell's son-in-law Henry Ireton, Colonel Pride physically bars about half of the members of Parliament from taking their seats

Attempts to form a provisional Government around the Independent Members of Parliament

Lambert leads the pursuit of the defeated Engager army south from Preston as Parliamentarian forces break the invasion apart.

Arranges pressure measurements at different elevations on Puy de Dome.

Lambert recaptures Appleby Castle while containing northern Royalist forces before the Scottish Engager invasion.

Fighting in the fields outside the town of Preston, the English Parliamentarian forces of Oliver Cromwell inflict a major reverse on the Anglo-Scottish Royalist army of the Duke of Hamilton

Sweden gains the Bishopric of Bremen

Sweden gains west Pomerania

Sweden gains the Bishopric of Verden

Sweden gains Wismar

In the wake of the ejections from the Long Parliament, the remnant, the Rump Parliament, arranges for the trial and execution of Charles I

In the wake of the ejections from the Long Parliament, the remnant, the Rump Parliament, arranges for the trial and execution of Charles I

Fairfax receives the surrender of Colchester after a hard Royalist siege during the Second Civil War.

Parlement refuses funds & Mazarin calls on the Condes troops to surround Paris

Lambert takes command of the Parliamentarian siege of Pontefract after the northern Royalist rising is largely defeated.

Captures Prague's Lesser Town during the final war phase.

Elected king after the death of Christian IV.

Lucas surrenders with the Royalist garrison after the long siege of Colchester ends following the defeat at Preston.

Faces parliamentary and noble revolt during childhood.

Asks Pride to exclude from Parliament those who had voted for the Newport Treaty

Following his Treaty with the Scots Parliament renounces allegiance to Charles I

Mecklenburg receives compensation while Sweden gains nearby imperial lands.

Mecklenburg's rights are restored after years of imperial and Swedish pressure.

Hesse-Kassel receives territorial compensation after sustained Protestant warfare.

Hesse-Kassel receives Hersfeld as part of its compensation.

Hesse-Kassel gains parts of Schaumburg in the postwar settlement.

France receives Habsburg rights in Alsace under the Treaty of Westphalia.

France confirms the Three Bishoprics while Lorraine remains a contested frontier region.

France and Sweden guarantee the peace while France gains rights in Alsace.

The ecclesiastical electorate retains its Catholic position in the settlement.

Represents Spanish interests in negotiations with the Dutch Republic.

Charles Louis recovers the Lower Palatinate under the peace settlement.

Charles Louis receives a restored Lower Palatinate and a new electorate.

Sweden receives the secularised archbishopric of Bremen.

Sweden receives Verden and expands its north German influence.

Sweden receives Western Pomerania and gains a foothold in the Empire.

Sweden is recognised as a guarantor of the Westphalian peace.

Sweden receives Wismar as part of its Baltic and imperial settlement.

Munster hosts negotiations involving France, the Empire, Spain and the Dutch Republic.

Wurttemberg recovers lands lost during the imperial occupation.

Habsburg control in Bohemia remains intact after the peace settlement.

His heirs regain part of the Palatinate after the war that began with his rebellion.

Munster hosts major negotiations that form part of the peace settlement.

Secures international recognition of Dutch sovereignty.

Receives Cammin as part of the settlement over Pomeranian claims.

Receives Farther Pomerania after compromise with Sweden.

Receives Halberstadt as compensation in the Westphalian settlement.

Receives a future claim to Magdeburg after the administrator's death.

Receives Minden and expands Brandenburg's north German holdings.

Brandenburg gains Farther Pomerania and compensation in northern German bishoprics.

Brandenburg gains Farther Pomerania and strengthens its position inside the Empire.

Saxony's position is confirmed but its wider German leadership declines.

Saxony's possessions and peace with Sweden are confirmed, though Brandenburg gains influence.

Represents French interests during the negotiations at Munster.

France receives important Habsburg rights and influence in Alsace.

France gains control of Breisach and strengthens its Rhine frontier.

French possession of Metz is confirmed in the settlement.

France receives garrison rights at Philippsburg on the Rhine.

French possession of Toul is confirmed under the peace terms.

French possession of Verdun is confirmed as part of the Three Bishoprics.

France emerges from the settlement with increased influence on the Rhine.

Maximilian keeps the electoral dignity gained during the war.

Bavaria keeps the Upper Palatinate gained during the war.

Mazarin continues the separate Franco Spanish war after the German peace.

Mazarin presents the peace as a favourable settlement for France and a justification for stronger royal authority.

Mazarin secures French gains while continuing war against Spain.

Helps negotiate French terms in the Westphalian peace congress.

The Dutch Republic's independence is recognised by Spain.

Oxenstierna's diplomacy secures Swedish rewards for wartime intervention.

Sweden gains Western Pomerania, Wismar, Bremen and Verden.

Represents Sweden in negotiations with the Empire at Osnabruck.

Pauw helps negotiate Dutch recognition in the Treaty of Munster.

Recognises the independence of the Dutch Republic after decades of revolt.

Spain recognises the independence of the Dutch Republic in the wider Westphalian settlement.

Spain remains at war with France despite the wider Westphalian settlement.

Helps secure Swedish terms during the Westphalian negotiations.

Schonborn supports a settlement designed to stabilise the Empire.

Works for French recognition of territorial gains in Alsace.

Trier's position is confirmed after years of French and imperial pressure.

Wrangel commands Swedish forces as the settlement ends the imperial war.

The "Rump Parliament" of 60 members votes that Charles be brought to trial

Royalist raiders kill Rainsborough at Doncaster while he is serving with Parliament's northern forces.

Death of Edward Herbert

Fairfax defeats Royalist insurgents at Maidstone during the Second Civil War and breaks the main Kentish rising.

First day of the disastrous Battle of Preston

The Scots are driven off by a charge of pikemen under Colonels Thomas Pride and Richard Dean. Surrenders at the Battle of Preston after making a final stand at Winwick. A victory by the troops of Oliver Cromwell over the Royalists and Scots commanded by the Duke of Hamilton, the Parliamentarian victory presaged the end of the Second English Civil War

Cromwell attacks the Scottish Engager army near Preston and begins the three-day campaign that destroys the invasion supporting Charles I.

Cromwell defeats the Engager army and breaks the main Royalist threat in the Second Civil War.

The Scots are driven off by a charge of pikemen under Colonels Thomas Pride and Richard Dean

Hamilton commands the Scottish Engager army defeated by Cromwell during the Preston campaign.

As a cavalry Commander serving under Cromwell defeats the Scottish-Royalists

Lambert cooperates with Cromwell as Parliamentarian forces defeat the Engagers near Preston.

A small tributary of the Ribble, causes the poet John Milton later to write of "Darwens stream with blood of Scots imbued"

The Scots are driven off by a charge of pikemen under Colonels Thomas Pride and Richard Dean

Fighting in the fields outside the town of Preston, the English Parliamentarian forces of Oliver Cromwell inflict a major reverse on the Anglo-Scottish Royalist army of the Duke of Hamilton