Amsterdam in History

Descartes develops studies of vision, lenses and light that later appear in The Dioptrics.

Descartes works in Amsterdam on The World, a mechanistic account of nature and cosmology.

A second edition adds further objections and Descartes's replies to his philosophical critics.

Descartes dedicates the Principles of Philosophy to Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia.

Descartes publishes the Principles of Philosophy as a systematic presentation of metaphysics and natural philosophy.

Descartes publishes a defence of his philosophy against positions associated with Henricus Regius.

The unfinished Rules for the Direction of the Mind is published long after Descartes's death.

Descartes's unfinished Rules for the Direction of the Mind appears in a posthumous collection.

Rousseau publishes the Discourse on Inequality, tracing social domination and artificial inequality.

Rousseau publishes Julie, a novel exploring virtue, passion, education and social convention.

Rousseau publishes Emile, presenting a theory of education based on natural development.

Rousseau publishes The Social Contract, grounding legitimate sovereignty in the general will.

Marches his forces into Amsterdam

Chirac joined European leaders in reaching political agreement on the Amsterdam Treaty.

Jospin represented France's government as the Amsterdam Treaty was signed to reform the European Union.

Vedrine accepts moving Schengen rules from intergovernmental cooperation into the Union's legal order. French policy couples freer movement with stronger police coordination.

In France, Chevenement works to preserve practical border, police and justice cooperation during the transition into EU law. Paris also emphasises effective controls at the Schengen area's external frontier.

During the Schengen process, Jospin endorses Amsterdam's Schengen Protocol, which brings the acquis inside the European Union treaty system. The French approach stresses both free movement and compensating security measures.