Siddhanta Shiromani
Bhaskara II completes the Siddhanta Shiromani, whose astronomical sections address planetary motion, spheres and eclipse calculations.
Astronomy topic guide · World History Database
History of the Heliocentric Model
The heliocentric model developed through a sequence of mathematical, observational and physical advances rather than a single discovery. Copernicus reorganised planetary astronomy around a moving Earth and a central Sun. Kepler then used Tycho Brahe’s observations to replace circular planetary paths with ellipses, while Galileo’s telescopic discoveries weakened several arguments for traditional geocentric cosmology. Newton finally supplied a physical theory—universal gravitation—that explained why the planets follow predictable paths around the Sun. The records below place these changes in chronological context.
What this chronology covers
The shift to heliocentrism was also a change in method. Copernicus supplied a new geometrical ordering of the planets; Tycho supplied unprecedented observations; Kepler extracted mathematical laws from those observations; Galileo tested cosmological claims with a telescope; and Newton connected the resulting orbital patterns to a general physical law. Reading these stages together prevents the history from being reduced to a single “Copernican revolution” moment and shows how models, instruments and physics interacted.
67matching astronomy records
2,423records in the complete astronomy database
Selected database timeline
The records below are drawn from the existing World History Database astronomy collection and arranged chronologically. For very broad subjects, the page shows a substantial selection rather than duplicating the entire parent database.
Birth of Nicolaus Copernicus
Birth of Nicolaus Copernicus
Mathematical and Astronomical Education
Receives training that supports his later work on planetary motion.
University of Krakow Studies
Begins university studies in mathematics, astronomy and related liberal arts.
Assistant to Domenico Maria Novara
Works with astronomer Domenico Maria Novara and develops practical observing experience.
Studies at Bologna
Begins legal studies while continuing astronomical observations in Bologna.
Commentariolus
Circulates a short manuscript outlining a heliocentric planetary system.
Early Heliocentric Outline
Presents an early account of Earth moving around the Sun.
Copernican Book Printed
Produces the first edition of the landmark astronomical work.
Printing of De revolutionibus
Prints Copernicus's De revolutionibus in Nuremberg.
Anonymous Preface to De revolutionibus
Adds an anonymous preface presenting the Copernican model as a calculating hypothesis.
Copernican Preface
The preface is printed without Copernicus's authorship.
Copernican System
Outlines the Copernican system of the solar system
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
Publication of "On The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres"
Copernican Model
His published model challenges the traditional geocentric arrangement.
Heliocentric System
Places Earth among the planets moving around the Sun.
De revolutionibus Published
His major astronomical work De revolutionibus is published in 1543.
Death of Copernicus
His death coincides with publication of De revolutionibus.
Death of Nicolaus Copernicus
Dies at Frombork in the same year his major work appears.
On the Revolutions Published
The book presents a mathematical heliocentric model of the cosmos.
Birth of Johannes Kepler
Birth of Johannes Kepler
Geoheliocentric Planetary Model
Places the planets around the Sun while the Sun circles Earth.
Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos)
Publication of Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos)
Mysterium cosmographicum
Publication of Mysterium cosmographicum (The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos)
Letter to Kepler on Copernicanism
Galileo writes to Johannes Kepler describing himself as a long-standing supporter of the Copernican system.
De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus (Concerning the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology)
Publication of De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus (Concerning the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology)
De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus
Publication of De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus (Concerning the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology)
Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy), describes the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies
Publication of Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy), describes the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies
Astronomiae Pars Optica
Publication of Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy), describes the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies
Discovery of Parallax
Publication of Astronomiae Pars Optica (The Optical Part of Astronomy), describes the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies
Discovery of Planetary Motion
Finding that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data, concludes that all planets move in ellipses, with the sun at one focus-Keplers first law of planetary motion
Law of Planetary Motion
Finding that an elliptical orbit fit the Mars data, concludes that all planets move in ellipses, with the sun at one focus-Keplers first law of planetary motion
Astronomia nova (New Astronomy)
Publication of Astronomia nova (New Astronomy)
Astronomia nova
Publication of Astronomia nova (New Astronomy)
Astronomia Nova
Publishes laws of elliptical planetary motion that prepare celestial mechanics for Newtonian gravity.
Copernican System
Publication of "The Starry Messenger", claims the Earth revolves around the Sun. Galileo's observations of the phases of Venus proved that it orbited the Sun and lent support to (but did not prove) the heliocentric model
Discovery of Venus
Galileo's observations of the phases of Venus proved that it orbited the Sun and lent support to (but did not prove) the heliocentric model. Galileo observes that Venus exhibited a full set of phases similar to that of the Moon
Jupiter Moons
Publishes support for Galileo's discovery of satellites orbiting Jupiter.
Copernican System
Published in "letters on the solar spots". For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of water in the seas as a point on the Earths surface speeded up and slowed down because of the Earths rotation on its axis and revolution around the Sun. Attempts to show there is scriptural support for his beliefs but condemned by the Pope
Caccini Attack on Copernicanism
Galileo becomes the target of a public sermon by Tommaso Caccini attacking Copernican astronomy and mathematicians.
Copernican System
Publication of three volumes of Epitome astronomia Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy)
Epitome astronomia Copernicanae
Publication of three volumes of Epitome astronomia Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy)
three volumes of Epitome astronomia Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy)
Publication of three volumes of Epitome astronomia Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy)
First Letter to Piero Dini
Galileo writes to Piero Dini defending Copernican astronomy and arguing that it need not conflict with Scripture.
Second Letter to Piero Dini
Galileo sends another letter to Piero Dini continuing his defence of Copernican astronomy.
Copernican System
Galileo circulates his first account of the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini. Cardinal Bellarmine, acting on directives from the Inquisition, delivered an order not to "hold or defend" the idea that the Earth moves and the Sun stands still at the centre
Bellarmino Admonition
Cardinal Bellarmino formally admonishes Galileo not to hold or defend the Copernican doctrine.
De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus (Concerning the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology)
Publication of Harmonice Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds). Publication of De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus (Concerning the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology)
De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus
Publication of Harmonice Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds). Publication of De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus (Concerning the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology)
Harmonice Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds)
Publication of Harmonice Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds). Publication of De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus (Concerning the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology)
Harmonice Mundi
Publication of Harmonice Mundi (Harmony of the Worlds). Publication of De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus (Concerning the More Certain Fundamentals of Astrology)
Third Law of Planetary Motion
States the harmonic relation between orbital period and distance from the Sun.
Copernican System
Galileo revives his project of writing a book about heliocentrism, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623
Copernican System
Galileo revives his project of writing a book about heliocentrism, encouraged by the election of Cardinal Barberini as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of Galileo in 1616
Rudolphine Tables
Publication of the Rudolphine Tables
Transit of Mercury Prediction
Kepler's Rudolphine Tables predict that Mercury will cross the face of the Sun in November 1631.
Transit of Venus Prediction
Kepler's Rudolphine Tables predict a transit of Venus for 1631, although the event is not visible from Europe.
Death of Johannes Kepler
Death of Johannes Kepler
Transit of Mercury Observed
Observes Mercury crossing the Sun as predicted by Kepler.
Copernican System
The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, is published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission
Copernican System
The book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, is published in 1632, with formal authorization from the Inquisition and papal permission. By the inquisition, forced to deny his belief in the Copernican system
Trial
By the inquisition, forced to deny his belief in the Copernican system
Galileo Abjuration
Galileo is formally condemned and required to sign an abjuration of the Copernican position.
Halley's Comet
This calculation enabled him to determine that the orbital elements of a second comet that had appeared in 1682 were nearly the same as those of two comets that had appeared in 1531 (observed by Petrus Apianus) and 1607 (observed by Johannes Kepler). Halley concluded that all three comets were
First Galileo Earth Flyby
Galileo flies past Earth for a gravity assist that increases its heliocentric speed on the journey to Jupiter.
NGC 4258 Maser Disk
Maps water masers orbiting in a thin Keplerian disk in NGC 4258, providing compelling dynamical evidence for a massive central black hole.
Kepler-1625b Exomoon Evidence
Teachey uses Hubble data with Kepler observations to report evidence for a possible large moon orbiting exoplanet Kepler-1625b.
Related astronomers
AryabhataProfile and database timelineBhaskara IIProfile and database timelineNicolaus CopernicusProfile and database timelineTycho BraheProfile and database timelineGalileo GalileiProfile and database timelineJohannes KeplerProfile and database timelineEdmond HalleyProfile and database timelineWilliam HerschelProfile and database timeline
Sources and editorial provenance
Compiled and edited by World History Database
Historical chronology compiled from the World History Database and checked against major scientific and historical reference sources.
Last reviewed: September 2026.
- Royal Museums Greenwich — History of astronomy
- Royal Museums Greenwich — History of the telescope
- NASA Science — Hubble timeline
- NASA Science — Exoplanet discovery history
- LIGO — GW150914 first gravitational-wave detection
- Event Horizon Telescope — first black-hole image
- NASA Webb — mission science and discoveries