Otto Eduard Leopold Bismarck Biography

Negotiates the Gastein Convention, temporarily dividing administration of the Elbe duchies.

Signs the convention as an interim settlement of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg.

Treats the Gastein arrangement as a temporary compromise rather than a final solution.

Uses discussions with Napoleon III to reduce the risk of French intervention during a future German war.

Accepts Austrian administration of Holstein while Prussia administers Schleswig under the convention.

Secures Prussian possession of Lauenburg after Austria transfers its rights for financial compensation.

Obtains administrative control of Schleswig while joint Austro-Prussian sovereignty formally continues.

Leaves Biarritz believing France might remain neutral, although Napoleon gives no binding territorial commitment.

Meets Napoleon III at Biarritz to test whether France would remain neutral in a Prussian-Austrian conflict.

Bismarck concludes a three-month offensive alliance linking Prussia with Italy against Austria.

Victory enables Prussia to pursue German unification without Austrian participation.

Prussian troops invade Saxony, whose army retreats to join Austria in Bohemia.

Bismarck proposes a reformed German federation with a directly elected national parliament.

Prussian forces invade Hanover to prevent its army joining Austria's southern allies.

Prussian forces enter Hesse-Kassel and isolate the elector's army.

Prussia occupies Holstein after Austria submits the duchy dispute to the Federal Diet.

The Peace of Prague establishes a Kleindeutsch solution excluding Austria from the northern federation.

Prussian annexation legislation incorporates the Free City of Frankfurt.

Bismarck concludes the August alliance with northern German states, founding the future confederation.

Bismarck argues against marching on Vienna or imposing territorial losses upon Austria.

The Peace of Prague dissolves the German Confederation and ends Austria's federal role.

Bismarck secures Austrian consent to Prussian reorganization of Germany north of the Main.

The Peace of Prague leaves the southern German states outside the northern confederation.

The annexation law ends Frankfurt's centuries-old status as a Free City.

Prussia and Bavaria conclude peace and a secret military convention.

The Hanoverian army capitulates after encirclement despite its tactical victory at Langensalza.

The Peace of Prague authorizes a new federal organization north of the Main.

The Nikolsburg preliminaries stop the Prussian advance and outline the final settlement.

Austria's referral of Holstein to the Federal Diet is treated as a breach of Gastein.

Prussia and Württemberg conclude peace and a secret defensive alliance.

Prussia declares the old Confederation dissolved after the Federal Diet's mobilization vote.

The annexation of Nassau consolidates Prussian territory along the Rhine and Main.

The August Alliance binds twenty-two northern German states to Prussian military leadership.

The treaty ends Austro-Prussian hostilities and confirms the broad Nikolsburg terms.

Austria accepts dissolution of the Confederation and Prussian reorganization north of the Main.

Bismarck secures a moderate settlement and rejects demands to annex Austrian territory.

Prussia and Baden conclude peace and a secret defensive alliance.

The settlement protects the separate sovereignty of southern Germany while allowing Prussian alliances.

The treaty confirms transfer of Austrian rights in Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia.

Prussian annexation legislation incorporates the Duchy of Nassau.

The North German Constitution creates a federal state under Prussian leadership.

Austrian Silesia remains under Habsburg rule because Prussia demands no Austrian territory.

Prussian annexation legislation incorporates the Kingdom of Hanover.

The annexation law incorporates Hanover as a province of the Prussian monarchy.

Prussian annexation legislation incorporates the Electorate of Hesse-Kassel.

The annexation law incorporates Hesse-Kassel into the Prussian state.

The Peace of Prague confirms Prussian possession of Holstein before its provincial incorporation.

The annexation law incorporates Nassau and expands Prussia's western territory.

The Peace of Prague confirms Prussian possession of Schleswig before its provincial incorporation.

The peace leaves Austrian Silesia unchanged and rejects any territorial transfer to Prussia.

Bismarck directs legislation annexing Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, Frankfurt, and other territories.

Bismarck oversees elections for the Reichstag charged with considering the northern federal constitution.

Bismarck accepts French mediation after Königgrätz while insisting upon Prussia's essential terms.