Albert Einstein Biography

Publishes his first scientific paper, examining molecular forces through capillary phenomena.

Einstein becomes a Swiss citizen after having been stateless since 1896.

Publishes an early paper developing the kinetic theory of thermal equilibrium using statistical methods.

Appointed Technical Expert, third class, at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern.

Publishes further work on the foundations of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics.

Studies fluctuations in radiation energy, an important precursor to his later quantum work.

Explains photoelectric emission by proposing that light transfers energy in discrete quanta to electrons.

Sends his light-quantum paper to Annalen der Physik, using quanta to explain the photoelectric effect.

Submits A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions as his doctoral dissertation at the University of Zurich.

Annalen der Physik receives Einstein's paper explaining Brownian motion through molecular collisions.

Submits On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, establishing the special theory of relativity.

The University of Zurich faculty unanimously approves Einstein's doctoral dissertation.

Submits the paper deriving the relation between mass and energy from special relativity.

Publishes work extending the light-quantum hypothesis to the production and absorption of radiation.

The University of Zurich formally awards Einstein his doctorate in physics.

His revised dissertation on molecular dimensions is published in Annalen der Physik.

Publishes a follow-up analysis refining his theory of Brownian motion.

Promoted to Technical Expert, second class, at the Swiss Patent Office.

Formulates the equivalence principle, a decisive step toward a relativistic theory of gravitation.

Predicts that gravity should shift the frequency of light, later called gravitational redshift.

Applies quantum ideas to the specific heat of solids, an early success of quantum theory.

Begins teaching at the University of Bern as a Privatdozent.

Presents a major lecture arguing that radiation displays both wave-like and particle-like properties.

Becomes associate professor of theoretical physics at the University of Zurich.

Receives his first honorary doctorate, awarded by the University of Geneva.

Becomes a member of the Physical Society of Zurich.

Explains critical opalescence using fluctuations near a liquid-gas critical point.

Participates in the first Solvay Conference, discussing radiation and quantum theory with leading physicists.

Becomes professor of theoretical physics at the German University in Prague.

Predicts that gravity should bend starlight and proposes a solar-eclipse test.

Works with Marcel Grossmann to master tensor calculus for a relativistic theory of gravitation.

Uses the Zurich Notebook to explore candidate gravitational field equations and differential geometry.

Begins work as professor of theoretical physics at ETH Zurich.

Encourages astronomical testing of gravitational light deflection during a solar eclipse.

Collaborates closely with Marcel Grossmann on the mathematical framework of gravitation.

Publishes the Entwurf gravitational theory with Marcel Grossmann as an intermediate step toward general relativity.

Lectures at Oxford on the methods and foundations of theoretical physics.

Settles in the United States after the Nazi rise to power and joins the Institute for Advanced Study.

Renounces German citizenship after the Nazi seizure of power while retaining Swiss citizenship.

Resigns from the Prussian Academy of Sciences after deciding not to return to Nazi Germany.

Publishes reflections on how fundamental theoretical physics develops from principles and mathematical structure.

Delivers the Gibbs Lecture on an elementary proof of the equivalence of mass and energy.

With Nathan Rosen, studies bridge solutions in general relativity connecting two sheets of spacetime.

Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen publish their argument that quantum mechanics may not provide a complete description of physical reality.

Receives the Franklin Medal in recognition of his work in relativity and the photoelectric effect.

Publishes a calculation showing how a foreground star can gravitationally lens light from a background star.

Files a declaration of intention to become a citizen of the United States.

Works with Leopold Infeld and Banesh Hoffmann on deriving equations of motion from general relativity.

Einstein and Rosen publish a corrected paper showing cylindrical gravitational-wave solutions.

Publishes work deriving approximate equations of motion for gravitating bodies from general relativity.

Publishes The Evolution of Physics with Leopold Infeld for a broad readership.

Signs the Einstein-Szilard letter warning President Roosevelt about uranium chain reactions and possible powerful bombs.

Writes again to President Roosevelt urging stronger attention to uranium research developments.

Sends another letter to Roosevelt concerning the need for effective action on uranium research.