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History of Physics Timeline: 1583–2026

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Date	Person	Event	Place	Description
1583	Galileo Galilei	Pendulum Isochronism Observation	Pisa, Italy	Galileo observes the regularity of a swinging cathedral lamp, an episode later associated with his investigations of pendulum motion.
1583	Galileo Galilei	Study of Euclidean Geometry	Italy	Galileo begins serious study of Euclid under Ostilio Ricci, strengthening the mathematical foundation of his later scientific work.
19 November 1602	Galileo Galilei	Law of Chords	Italy	In the same letter, Galileo formulates the law of chords concerning descent times along chords of a vertical circle.
19 November 1602	Galileo Galilei	Pendulum Isochronism Letter	Italy	Galileo writes to Guidobaldo del Monte describing his principle that pendulums of equal length have approximately equal periods.
1612	Galileo Galilei	Discourse on Floating Bodies	Italy	Galileo publishes a discourse defending Archimedean hydrostatics against Aristotelian explanations of why bodies float or sink.
1626	Galileo Galilei	Magnet Armature Experiments	Italy	Galileo reports experiments in which an iron armature greatly increases the lifting strength of a magnet.
25 January 1627	Robert Boyle	Birth of Robert Boyle	Ireland	Birth of Robert Boyle
1638	Galileo Galilei Natural Philosopher	Falling Bodies	Leiden, Italy	Publishes mathematical treatment of falling bodies later absorbed into gravitational physics.
1638	Galileo Galilei	Two New Sciences Published	Leiden, Italy	Printing is completed for Galileo's Two New Sciences, a foundational work on strength of materials and mathematical treatment of motion.
19 September 1648	Blaise Pascal Mathematician and Physicist	Atmospheric Pressure Variation	Puy de Dome, France	Demonstrates that atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude.
19 September 1648	Blaise Pascal Mathematician and Physicist	Puy de Dome Experiment	Puy de Dome, France	Arranges pressure measurements at different elevations on Puy de Dome.
1662	Robert Boyle Scientist	Boyle's Law	London, England	States that the volume of a gas varies inversely with pressure when temperature is constant.
1662	Robert Boyle Scientist	Spring of the Air	London, England	Boyle publishes work explaining the spring and pressure of air, associated with Boyle's Law.
1669	Rasmus Bartholin Physician and Scientist	Double Refraction	Copenhagen, Denmark	Publishes observations of double refraction in Iceland spar.
1669	Rasmus Bartholin Physician and Scientist	Iceland Spar Experiment	Copenhagen, Denmark	Shows that one crystal can split a light ray into two paths.
November 1679	Robert Hooke Natural Philosopher	Newton Correspondence	London, England	Corresponds with Newton about falling bodies and orbital paths.
1690	Christaan Huygens	Treatise On Light	Netherlands	Publication of "Treatise On Light"
1690	Christiaan Huygens Mathematician	Cause of Gravity	Leiden, Netherlands	Publishes mechanical ideas about gravity and centrifugal force in cosmological context.
1736	Anders Celsius Astronomer and Physicist	Lapland Meridian Expedition	Tornio, Sweden	Participates in measurements of a meridian arc near the Arctic Circle.
1736	Anders Celsius Astronomer and Physicist	Measurement of Earths Shape	Tornio, Sweden	Supports evidence that Earth is flattened at the poles.
1756	James Watt Instrument Maker	University Instrument Maker	Glasgow, Great Britain	Begins work as a mathematical instrument maker for the University of Glasgow.
1757	James Watt Instrument Maker	Macfarlane Observatory Instruments	Glasgow, Great Britain	Restores and installs astronomical instruments for the University's new Macfarlane Observatory.
May 1765	James Watt Engineer	Separate Steam Condenser	Glasgow, Great Britain	Develops the idea of the separate steam condenser while working in Glasgow.
1766	Henry Cavendish	Discovery of Hydrogen	Great Britain	First recognizes hydrogen as a substance distinct from other flammable gases, who is credited with its discovery. Discovers hydrogen, "inflammable air"
20 January 1775	Andre-Marie Ampere	Birth of Andre-Marie Ampere	Lyons, France	Birth of Andre-Marie Ampere
1777	Hans Christian Oersted	Birth of Hans Christian Oersted	Netherlands	Birth of Hans Christian Oersted, founder of the science of electromagnetism
1785	Charles-Augustin de Coulomb Physicist	Coulomb Law	Paris, France	Uses a torsion balance to measure forces between electric charges.
1785	Charles-Augustin de Coulomb Physicist	Electrostatic Force Measurement	Paris, France	Establishes the inverse-square law governing electrostatic attraction and repulsion.
1789	Georg Simon Ohm	Birth of Georg Simon Ohm	Germany	Birth of Georg Simon Ohm
22 September 1791	Michael Faraday Scientist · Experimental scientist	Birth of Michael Faraday	Newington Butts, Great Britain	Birth of Michael Faraday
1798	Henry Cavendish Natural Philosopher	Cavendish Experiment	London, Great Britain	Measures Earth's density with a torsion balance, enabling later determination of the gravitational constant.
1818	Augustin-Jean Fresnel Physicist	Diffraction Theory	Paris, France	Strengthens the transverse-wave interpretation of light.
1818	Augustin-Jean Fresnel Physicist	Wave Theory of Light	Paris, France	Presents a mathematical wave theory explaining optical diffraction.
1819	Francois Arago Physicist and Astronomer	Arago Spot Experiment	Paris, France	Observes a bright point at the centre of a circular shadow.
1819	Francois Arago Physicist and Astronomer	Poisson Bright Spot	Paris, France	Confirms a surprising prediction of Fresnels wave theory.
1819	George Gabriel Stokes	Birth of George Gabriel Stokes	Ireland	Birth of George Gabriel Stokes
21 April 1820	Hans Christian Oersted Physicist	Electromagnetism Demonstration	Copenhagen, Denmark	Observes an electric current deflecting a nearby compass needle.
21 April 1820	Hans Christian Oersted Physicist	Magnetic Effect of Electric Current	Copenhagen, Denmark	Establishes an experimental connection between electricity and magnetism.
2 January 1822	Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius	Birth of Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius	Koszalin, Germany	Birth of Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius
1822	William Sturgeon	Invention of Electromagnet	Great Britain	Invents the 1st electromagnet
1822	Robert William Thomson	Birth of Robert William Thomson	Great Britain	Birth of Robert William Thomson
26 June 1824	William Thomson Kelvin, 1st Baron	Birth of William Thomson	Belfast, Great Britain	Birth of William Thomson
1824	Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot	Discovery of Thermodynamics	France	Helps discover the 2nd law of Thermodynamics
1824	Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot	Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire	France	Publication of "Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire"
1827	Georg Simon Ohm	Discovery of Ohms Law	Germany	Discovers Ohms Law, volts = Impdendence x resitance
1831	Michael Faraday	Discovery of Electro-Magnetism	Great Britain	Discovers Electro-Magnetic Induction
1834	William Thomson Kelvin Student	University Matriculation	Glasgow, Great Britain	Matriculates at the University of Glasgow while still a child.
25 February 1837	Thomas Davenport Inventor	Electric Motor Patent	Washington, United States of America	Receives United States patent number 132 for an electromagnetic motor.
25 February 1837	Thomas Davenport Inventor	First United States Electric Motor Patent	Washington, United States of America	Secures the first United States patent issued for an electric motor.
24 July 1837	Louis Agassiz Naturalist	Glacial Theory	Neuchatel, Switzerland	Publicly advances the theory of a widespread prehistoric glacial period.
24 July 1837	Louis Agassiz Naturalist	Neuchatel Glacial Address	Neuchatel, Switzerland	Presents evidence that extensive ancient ice once covered large regions.
23 November 1837	Johannes Diderik van Der Waals	Birth of Johannes Diderik van der Waals	Netherlands	Birth of Johannes Diderik van der Waals
1837	Charles Babbage Mathematician and Inventor	Analytical Engine Description	London, Great Britain	Describes the architecture and mathematical capabilities of the Analytical Engine.
1837	Charles Babbage Mathematician and Inventor	Mechanical General-Purpose Computer	London, Great Britain	Develops a programmable mechanical design with separate calculation and memory functions.
1837	William Fothergill Cooke Inventor	Electric Telegraph Patent	London, Great Britain	Co-develops and patents a practical electric telegraph system.
1837	William Fothergill Cooke Inventor	Five-Needle Telegraph	London, Great Britain	Creates a five-needle instrument for transmitting letters through electrical signals.
1837	Samuel Finley Breese Morse Inventor	Experimental Telegraph Receiver	New York, United States of America	Builds an experimental receiver capable of recording electrical signal changes.
1837	Samuel Finley Breese Morse Inventor	Telegraph Patent Caveat	New York, United States of America	Files a patent caveat while refining his electromagnetic telegraph.
1837	Charles Wheatstone Physicist and Inventor	Electric Telegraph Collaboration	London, Great Britain	Provides electrical and instrument expertise for the Cooke-Wheatstone telegraph.
1837	Charles Wheatstone Physicist and Inventor	Needle Telegraph Development	London, Great Britain	Helps transform electromagnetic needle deflection into practical written communication.
1838	Richard Laming	Discovery of Electrons	Great Britain	Between 1838 and 1851, British natural philosopher Richard Laming developed the idea that an atom is composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit electric charge
12 November 1842	John William Strutt Rayleigh, 3rd Baron	Birth of John William Strutt	Great Britain	Birth of John William Strutt
1842	Christian Andreas Doppler Physicist and Mathematician	Doppler Effect	Prague, Austria	Presents the principle that observed frequency changes with relative motion.
1842	Christian Andreas Doppler Physicist and Mathematician	Frequency Shift Principle	Prague, Austria	Establishes the frequency-shift effect later named for him.
1843	Ludvig August Colding Physicist and Engineer	Conservation of Energy	Copenhagen, Denmark	Presents experiments supporting conservation of energy in physical processes.
1843	Ludvig August Colding Physicist and Engineer	Permanence of Natural Forces	Copenhagen, Denmark	Argues that natural forces transform without being destroyed.
20 February 1844	Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann	Birth of Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann	Austria	Birth of Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann
1845	Wilhelm Konrad von Rontgen	Birth of Wilhelm Konrad von Rontgen	Germany	Birth of Wilhelm Konrad von Rontgen
1845	Robert William Thomson	Invention of Pnuematic Tyre	Great Britain	Invents the pnuematic tyre
1845	Robert William Thomson	Patent	Great Britain	Patents the pnuematic tyre
1846	William Weber	Discovery of Electrons	Germany	Beginning in 1846, German physicist William Weber theorized that electricity was composed of positively and negatively charged fluids, and their interaction was governed by the inverse square law
1848	William Thomson Kelvin Professor	Absolute Temperature Scale	Glasgow, Great Britain	Proposes an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale while professor at Glasgow.
1848	William Thomson Kelvin, 1st Baron · Professor	Discovery of Kelvin Scale	Great Britain	Proposes the absolute Kelvin scale for measuring temperature
1850	Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius	first	Germany	His most important paper, On the mechanical theory of heat, published in 1850, first states the basic ideas of the second law of thermodynamics
1850	Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius	in 1850	Germany	His most important paper, On the mechanical theory of heat, published in 1850, first states the basic ideas of the second law of thermodynamics
1850	Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius	Thermodynamics	Germany	His most important paper, On the mechanical theory of heat, published in 1850, first states the basic ideas of the second law of thermodynamics
26 March 1851	Jean Bernard Leon Foucault Physicist	Direct Demonstration of Earths Rotation	Paris, France	Provides visible mechanical evidence that Earth rotates.
26 March 1851	Jean Bernard Leon Foucault Physicist	Foucault Pendulum	Paris, France	Demonstrates a long pendulum beneath the dome of the Pantheon.
1852	Jean Bernard Leon Foucault Physicist	Gyroscope	Paris, France	Constructs and names the gyroscope for studying rotational motion.
1852	Jean Bernard Leon Foucault Physicist	Rotational Reference Instrument	Paris, France	Creates an instrument preserving orientation through angular momentum.
1856	Nikola Tesla	Birth of Nikola Tesla	Croatia	Birth of Nikola Tesla, invented fluorescent lighting
1856	Joseph John Thomson	Birth of Joseph John Thomson	Great Britain	Birth of Joseph John Thomson
1858	Max Karl Ernst Planck	Birth of Max Karl Ernst Planck	Germany	Birth of Max Karl Ernst Planck, developed quantum theory
1858	Julius Plucker Physicist	Magnetic Deflection of Cathode Rays	Bonn, Germany	Shows that magnetic fields alter the path of cathode-ray fluorescence in gas-discharge tubes.
1858	William Thomson Kelvin, 1st Baron · Professor	Invention of Galvonometer	Great Britain	Patents the mirror galvonometer
1858	William Thomson Kelvin, 1st Baron · Professor	Patent	Great Britain	Patents the mirror galvonometer
15 May 1859	Pierre Curie Physicist	Birth of Pierre Curie	Paris, France	Birth of Pierre Curie in Paris.
1862	Anders Jonas Angstrom	Discovery of Hydrogen	Sweden	Discovers hydrogen in the solar atmosphere
1865	Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius	Discovery of Entropy	Germany	Introduces the concept of entropy
1865	James Clerk Maxwell Physicist	Electromagnetic Theory	London, Great Britain	Publishes equations showing electromagnetic waves can propagate through space.
1868	Anders Jonas Angstrom Physicist and Astronomer	Solar Spectrum Atlas	Uppsala, Sweden	Publishes a detailed atlas of the solar spectrum.
1868	Anders Jonas Angstrom Physicist and Astronomer	Spectroscopic Wavelength Measurement	Uppsala, Sweden	Establishes precise wavelength measurements using the unit later named the angstrom.
1868	Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius	Royal Society	Germany	Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London
1869	Johann Wilhelm Hittorf Physicist	Cathode Ray Shadows	Munster, Germany	Observes sharp shadows in discharge tubes, showing that cathode rays travel in straight lines from the cathode.
1870	Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann	Discovery of Entropy	Austria	The statistical definition is developed by Ludwig Boltzmann in the 1870s by analyzing the statistical behavior of the microscopic components of the system
1871	Ernst Rutherford	Birth of Ernst Rutherford	New Zealand	Birth of Ernst Rutherford
1872	William Thomson Kelvin, 1st Baron · Professor	Invention of Tide Predictor	Great Britain	Invents a tide predictor
1873	John William Strutt Rayleigh, 3rd Baron · Fellow of the Royal Society	Royal Society	Great Britain	Elected Fellow of the Royal Society
1873	Robert William Thomson	Death of Robert William Thomson	Great Britain	Death of Robert William Thomson
1874	George Johnstone Stoney	Discovery of Electrons	Ireland	After studying the phenomenon of electrolysis in 1874, Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney suggested that there existed a "single definite quantity of electricity", the charge of a monovalent ion
1875	Gustav Wiedemann Professor	Physics Professorship	Leipzig, Germany	Becomes professor of physics at Leipzig University and helps strengthen experimental physics teaching.
1876	Eugen Goldstein Physicist	Cathode Rays Named	Berlin, Germany	Introduces the term cathode rays for the radiation emerging from the negative electrode in a discharge tube.
1877	Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann Physicist	Boltzmann Entropy Formula	Vienna, Austria	Connects thermodynamic entropy with the number of microscopic states.
1877	Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann	President of Austria	Graz, Austria	Appointed President of the University of Graz
1877	Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann Physicist	Statistical Entropy	Vienna, Austria	Expresses entropy statistically through the formula later engraved on his tomb.
1877	Johannes Diderik van Der Waals	Professor	Amsterdam, Netherlands	Becomes the first physics professor of the University of Amsterdam when it opened in 1877
1878	Pierre Curie Physicist	Physics Education	Paris, France	Earns his licence in physics from the Sorbonne.
14 March 1879	Albert Einstein	Birth of Albert Einstein	Ulm, Germany	Albert Einstein is born in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany.
1879	Edwin Herbert Hall Physicist	Hall Effect	Baltimore, United States of America	Discovers that a magnetic field produces a transverse voltage in a current-carrying conductor, later understood through electron motion.
1879	Josef Stefan Physicist	Stefan Radiation Law	Vienna, Austria	Formulates the fourth-power relationship between temperature and radiated energy.
1879	Josef Stefan Physicist	Thermal Radiation Power	Vienna, Austria	Establishes a quantitative law governing thermal radiation from hot bodies.
1880	Jacques Curie Physicist	Piezoelectricity	Paris, France	Discovers piezoelectricity with his brother Pierre Curie.
1880	Pierre Curie Physicist	Piezoelectricity	Paris, France	Discovers piezoelectricity with his brother Jacques Curie.
16 May 1881	Werner von Siemens Inventor	First Electric Tram	Berlin-Lichterfelde, Germany	Opens an electric railway at Lichterfelde near Berlin.
16 May 1881	Werner von Siemens Inventor	Lichterfelde Electric Railway	Berlin-Lichterfelde, Germany	The line becomes the world's first electric tramway.
July 1881	Alexander Graham Bell Inventor	Induction Balance Tested	Washington, Great Britain	Tests an induction balance in an attempt to locate Garfield's bullet.
July 1881	Alexander Graham Bell Inventor	Search for Garfield Bullet	Washington, Great Britain	Develops an early metal detector for the wounded president.
1881	Jacques Curie Physicist	Inverse Piezoelectric Effect	Paris, France	Helps demonstrate the inverse piezoelectric effect.
1881	Pierre Curie Physicist	Inverse Piezoelectric Effect	Paris, France	Helps experimentally verify the inverse piezoelectric effect.
1881	Pierre Curie Physicist	Inverse Piezoelectric Effect	Paris, France	Shows crystals can deform under an electric field.
1881	Pierre Curie Physicist	Piezoelectric Verification	Paris, France	Shows that electric fields can deform suitable crystals.
1881	Hermann von Helmholtz	Discovery of Electrons	Germany	In 1881, German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz argued that both positive and negative charges were divided into elementary parts, each of which "behaves like atoms of electricity"
1881	William Thomson Kelvin Professor	Electric Lighting of University House	Glasgow, Great Britain	Creates one of the first houses in the world to be fully lit by electricity on the university campus.
26 August 1882	James Franck Physicist	Birth of James Franck	Hamburg, Germany	James Franck is born in Hamburg, Germany.
26 August 1882	James Franck Physicist	James Franck Born	Hamburg, Germany	The future Nobel physicist is born into a Hamburg family.
30 September 1882	Hans Geiger Physicist	Birth of Hans Geiger	Neustadt an der Haardt, Germany	Hans Geiger is born in Neustadt an der Haardt.
30 September 1882	Hans Geiger Physicist	Hans Geiger Born	Neustadt an der Haardt, Germany	The future developer of radiation counters is born in Germany.
11 December 1882	Max Born Physicist	Birth of Max Born	Breslau, Germany	Max Born is born in Breslau, Germany.
11 December 1882	Max Born Physicist	Max Born Born	Breslau, Germany	The future quantum physicist and Nobel laureate is born.
1882	Pierre Curie Physicist	ESPCI Appointment	Paris, France	Joins the Paris School of Industrial Physics and Chemistry.
1883	Ernst Mach Physicist and Philosopher	Relational Mechanics	Prague, Austria	Emphasizes observable relations among bodies in the foundations of mechanics.
1883	Ernst Mach Physicist and Philosopher	The Science of Mechanics	Prague, Austria	Publishes a critique of absolute space and classical mechanical assumptions.
1883	Gustav Wiedemann Physicist	Annalen der Physik Editorship	Leipzig, Germany	Continues influential scientific publishing work while based at Leipzig.
28 January 1884	Auguste Piccard	Birth of Auguste Piccard	Switzerland	Birth of Auguste Piccard
1884	Svante August Arrhenius Physical Chemist	Electrolytic Dissociation Theory	Uppsala, Sweden	Proposes that dissolved salts separate into electrically charged ions.
1884	Svante August Arrhenius Physical Chemist	Ions in Solution	Uppsala, Sweden	Explains electrical conductivity and chemical reactions in electrolyte solutions.
1886	Heinrich Hertz Physicist	Radio Wave Reflection	Karlsruhe, Germany	Demonstrates radio waves and their reflection from conducting surfaces.
1887	Ernst Mach Physicist	Mach Number Research	Prague, Austria	Advances experimental study of supersonic flow and velocity ratios.
1887	Ernst Mach Physicist	Supersonic Shock Waves	Prague, Austria	Photographs shock waves produced by projectiles moving faster than sound.
1887	Albert Abraham Michelson Physicist	Relativity, Theory of	Cleveland, United States of America	Michelson carries out interferometer measurements that challenge the idea of a stationary luminiferous ether
1887	Edward Williams Morley Chemist	Relativity, Theory of	Cleveland, United States of America	Morley works with Michelson on the ether drift experiment later treated as an important background to special relativity
1887	Wilhelm Wien Physicist	Leipzig Physics Studies	Leipzig, Germany	Studies physics in Leipzig during his early scientific training.
24 August 1888	Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius	Death of Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius	Germany	Death of Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius
1888	Johannes Robert Rydberg Physicist	Atomic Spectral Series	Lund, Sweden	Provides a mathematical basis for interpreting hydrogen spectral lines.
1888	Johannes Robert Rydberg Physicist	Rydberg Formula	Lund, Sweden	Develops a formula describing regular patterns in atomic spectra.
1888	William Thomson Kelvin Professor	Climate and Antarctic Ice Lecture	Glasgow, Great Britain	Discusses Antarctic ice and the role of oceans in climate at the Geological Society of Glasgow.
1889	George Francis FitzGerald Physicist	Relativity, Theory of	Dublin, Ireland	FitzGerald proposes length contraction as a way to explain the null result of ether drift experiments
1890	Johannes Diderik van Der Waals	a treatise on the Theory of Binary Solutions	Netherlands	Publishes a treatise on the Theory of Binary Solutions in the Archives N‚erlandaises
1892	Hendrik Antoon Lorentz Physicist	Electron Theory of Matter	Leiden, Netherlands	Develops an electrodynamic theory in which charged microscopic particles account for electrical and optical behaviour in matter.
1892	Hendrik Antoon Lorentz Physicist	Relativity, Theory of	Leiden, Netherlands	Lorentz develops electron theory and uses contraction ideas in attempts to account for electromagnetic experiments
1892	William Thomson Kelvin, 1st Baron · Professor	Peerage	Great Britain	Created Baron Kelvin, 1st
1894	Pierre Curie Physicist	Meets Marie Sklodowska	Paris, France	Meets Marie Sklodowska through scientific contacts in Paris.
1894	George Johnstone Stoney	Discovery of Electrons	Ireland	Stoney coined the term electron to describe these elementary charges, saying, "... an estimate was made of the actual amount of this most remarkable fundamental unit of electricity, for which I have since ventured to suggest the name electron"
1894	John William Strutt Physicist	Argon Identification	London, Great Britain	Uses precise density measurements of atmospheric nitrogen to help reveal argon as a distinct element not accounted for in the existing periodic table.
26 July 1895	Pierre Curie Physicist	Marriage	Sceaux, France	Marries Marie Sklodowska and begins a famous scientific partnership.
1895	Jagadish Chandra Bose Physicist	Microwave Demonstration	Calcutta, India	Jagadish Chandra Bose publicly demonstrates the transmission and detection of millimetre-wave electromagnetic radiation in Calcutta.
1895	Pierre Curie Physicist	Curie Law	Paris, France	Formulates the inverse relation between susceptibility and temperature.
1895	Pierre Curie Physicist	Curie Point	Paris, France	Shows that magnetic properties change at a critical temperature.
1895	Pierre Curie Physicist	Doctorate	Paris, France	Receives a doctorate for research on magnetism.
1895	Hendrik Antoon Lorentz Physicist	Relativity, Theory of	Leiden, Netherlands	Lorentz introduces local time in electromagnetic theory, a step toward the later Lorentz transformations
1895	Jean Baptiste Perrin Physicist	Negative Charge of Cathode Rays	Paris, France	Demonstrates that cathode rays carry negative electric charge by collecting the rays in an insulated conductor.
1895	John William Strutt Rayleigh, 3rd Baron	Discovery of Argon	Great Britain	Discovers the element argon
1 March 1896	Henri Becquerel Physicist	Uranium Rays	Paris, France	Discovers penetrating radiation emitted by uranium salts.
1 March 1896	Henri Becquerel Physicist	Uranium Rays	Paris, France	Reports spontaneous radiation from uranium salts.
March 1896	Henri Becquerel Physicist	Radioactivity	Paris, France	Shows uranium radiation can fog photographic plates without sunlight.
1896	Svante August Arrhenius Physical Chemist	Carbon Dioxide Climate Calculation	Stockholm, Sweden	Calculates how atmospheric carbon dioxide changes could affect global temperature.
1896	Svante August Arrhenius Physical Chemist	Greenhouse Warming Estimate	Stockholm, Sweden	Produces an early quantitative model of greenhouse-driven climate change.
1896	William Thomson Kelvin Professor	Kelvin Professorial Jubilee	Glasgow, Great Britain	Is honoured in Glasgow for fifty years as Professor of Natural Philosophy.
1896	Pieter Zeeman Physicist	Zeeman Effect and Charged Oscillators	Leiden, Netherlands	Finds that magnetic fields split spectral lines, providing evidence for charged particles participating in atomic radiation.
12 September 1897	Pierre Curie Physicist	Birth of Irene Curie	Paris, France	Becomes father of Irene Curie.
1897	Jagadish Chandra Bose Physicist	Microwave Research	London, India	Jagadish Chandra Bose presents his microwave apparatus and research on short electromagnetic waves at the Royal Institution in London.
1897	Joseph John Thomson Physicist	Cathode-Ray Charge-to-Mass Ratio	Cambridge, Great Britain	Measures the charge-to-mass ratio of cathode-ray particles and shows they are far lighter than atoms.
1897	Joseph John Thomson Physicist	Cathode-Ray Corpuscles	Cambridge, Great Britain	Argues that cathode rays consist of universal negatively charged corpuscles, later called electrons.
1897	Joseph John Thomson	Discovery of Electrons	Great Britain	Discovers the electron
1897	Emil Wiechert Physicist	Cathode Ray Charge-to-Mass Ratio	Konigsberg, Germany	Measures a very small mass-to-charge ratio for cathode-ray particles, evidence that they are much lighter than atoms.
1897	Emil Wiechert Physicist	Cathode-Ray Charge-to-Mass Measurement	Konigsberg, Germany	Obtains an early charge-to-mass estimate for cathode-ray particles, supporting their subatomic character.
18 July 1898	Pierre Curie Physicist	Discovery of Polonium	Paris, France	Works with Marie Curie in announcing the discovery of polonium.
26 December 1898	Pierre Curie Physicist	Discovery of Radium	Paris, France	Works with Marie Curie and Gustave Bemont in announcing radium.
1898	Philipp Lenard Physicist	Cathode Ray Penetration	Heidelberg, Germany	Studies how cathode rays penetrate matter through thin windows, establishing characteristic absorption and scattering behaviour.
1898	Henri Poincare Mathematician	Relativity, Theory of	Paris, France	Poincare discusses the conventional nature of simultaneity and the synchronization of distant clocks
1898	Isidor Isaac Rabi	Birth of Isidor Isaac Rabi	Austria	Birth of Isidor Isaac Rabi
1898	Leo Szilard	Birth of Leo Szilard	Hungary	Birth of Leo Szilard, researched nuclear fission
1898	William Thomson Kelvin Professor	Wireless Telegram Experiment	Glasgow, Great Britain	Sends a wireless telegram to colleague George Gabriel Stokes during experiments in Glasgow.
1899	Philipp Lenard Physicist	Cathode-Ray Absorption Studies	Kiel, Germany	Studies how cathode rays penetrate matter and helps establish their particle-like behaviour.
1899	John William Strutt Rayleigh, 3rd Baron	Copley Medal	Great Britain	Awarded the Copley Medal
1899	William Thomson Kelvin Professor	Retirement from Glasgow Chair	Glasgow, Great Britain	Retires from the Chair of Natural Philosophy after fifty-three years.
1899	Otto Wiener Professor	Leipzig Physics Chair	Leipzig, Germany	Becomes professor of physics at Leipzig University and directs its physical institute.
1900	Pierre Curie Physicist	Sorbonne Professor	Paris, France	Becomes professor in the Faculty of Sciences.
1900	Paul Drude Physicist	Electron Theory of Metals	Leipzig, Germany	Models conduction in metals as the motion of mobile charged particles and lays foundations for the classical electron theory of conductivity.
1900	John William Strutt Rayleigh, 3rd Baron	Discovery of Rayleighs Law	London, Great Britain	Formulates a law relating to black body radiation
1900	Pauli Wolfgang	Birth of Pauli Wolfgang	Austria	Birth of Pauli Wolfgang, originator of the "exclusion principle"
21 February 1901	Albert Einstein Physicist	Swiss Citizenship	Zurich, Switzerland	Einstein becomes a Swiss citizen after having been stateless since 1896.
29 September 1901	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Birth of Enrico Fermi	Rome, Italy	Enrico Fermi is born in Rome on 29 September 1901 and later becomes one of the leading physicists of the twentieth century.
10 December 1901	Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Germany	Receives the first Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the radiation later called X-rays.
1901	Pierre Curie Physicist	Radium Effects	Paris, France	Studies physiological effects of radium with medical collaborators.
1901	Albert Einstein Physicist	Capillarity Paper	Zurich, Switzerland	Publishes his first scientific paper, examining molecular forces through capillary phenomena.
1901	Owen Willans Richardson Physicist	Thermionic Electron Emission	Cambridge, Great Britain	Establishes the temperature dependence of electron emission from heated metals, foundational for vacuum-tube electronics.
1901	Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Germany	Receives the first Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of X-rays, which opened a new method for investigating matter and the human body.
19 June 1902	Albert Einstein Physicist	Swiss Patent Office Appointment	Bern, Switzerland	Appointed Technical Expert, third class, at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern.
10 December 1902	Hendrik Antoon Lorentz Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Netherlands	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for research on the influence of magnetism on radiation.
10 December 1902	Pieter Zeeman Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Netherlands	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the effect of magnetism on light spectra.
1902	Albert Einstein Physicist	Statistical Mechanics Paper I	Bern, Switzerland	Publishes an early paper developing the kinetic theory of thermal equilibrium using statistical methods.
1902	Philipp Lenard Physicist	Photoelectric Electron Energy	Kiel, Germany	Shows that photoelectron energy depends strongly on light frequency rather than simply on intensity.
1902	Hendrik Antoon Lorentz Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Netherlands	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for research on the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena and for developing the electron theory used to explain the Zeeman effect.
1902	Pieter Zeeman Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Netherlands	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering that magnetic fields split spectral lines, providing experimental evidence for the interaction between magnetism and light.
10 December 1903	Svante August Arrhenius Physical Chemist	Electrolytic Dissociation Recognition	Stockholm, Sweden	Gains international recognition for explaining ions in chemical solutions.
10 December 1903	Henri Becquerel Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, France	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering spontaneous radioactivity.
10 December 1903	Pierre Curie Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, France	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for research on radiation phenomena discovered by Henri Becquerel.
10 December 1903	Pierre Curie Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, France	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for radiation research.
1903	Pierre Curie Physicist	Davy Medal	London, France	Receives the Davy Medal with Marie Curie.
1903	Albert Einstein Physicist	Foundations of Thermodynamics	Bern, Switzerland	Publishes further work on the foundations of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics.
1903	Ernest Rutherford Physicist	Radioactive Decay	Montreal, Great Britain	Develops radioactive decay theory using uranium and thorium studies.
24 September 1904	Henri Poincare Mathematician	Relativity, Theory of	St Louis, France	Poincare states a principle of relativity in a lecture on the future of mathematical physics
10 December 1904	John William Strutt Rayleigh, 3rd Baron · Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Great Britain	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for gas-density research and the discovery of argon.
1904	Jagadish Chandra Bose Physicist	Radio Detector Patent	United States, India	Jagadish Chandra Bose receives a United States patent for a detector of electrical disturbances based on semiconductor-like crystal detection.
1904	Pierre Curie Physicist	Sorbonne Chair	Paris, France	Becomes titular professor at the Sorbonne.
1904	Albert Einstein Physicist	Radiation Energy Fluctuations	Bern, Switzerland	Studies fluctuations in radiation energy, an important precursor to his later quantum work.
1904	Friedrich Hasenohrl Physicist	Electromagnetic Mass-Energy	Vienna, Austria	Explores the relationship between electromagnetic energy and mass before relativity.
1904	Friedrich Hasenohrl Physicist	Radiation Cavity Mass	Vienna, Austria	Calculates that radiation confined in a cavity contributes effective inertia.
1904	Hendrik Antoon Lorentz Physicist	Relativity, Theory of	Leiden, Netherlands	Lorentz publishes transformations that preserve the form of Maxwells equations for moving systems
1904	Julius Robert Oppenheimer	Birth of Julius Robert Oppenheimer	United States of America	Birth of Julius Robert Oppenheimer
1904	John William Strutt Rayleigh, 3rd Baron	Nobel Prize	Great Britain	Winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics
1904	Joseph John Thomson Physicist	Electron Atomic Model	Cambridge, Great Britain	Proposes an atomic model containing negatively charged electrons embedded within diffuse positive charge.
17 March 1905	Albert Einstein Physicist	Photoelectric Effect Paper Submitted	Bern, Switzerland	Sends his light-quantum paper to Annalen der Physik, using quanta to explain the photoelectric effect.
30 April 1905	Albert Einstein Physicist	Doctoral Dissertation Submitted	Zurich, Switzerland	Submits A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions as his doctoral dissertation at the University of Zurich.
11 May 1905	Albert Einstein Physicist	Brownian Motion Paper Received	Bern, Switzerland	Annalen der Physik receives Einstein's paper explaining Brownian motion through molecular collisions.
6 June 1905	Pierre Curie Physicist	Nobel Lecture	Stockholm, France	Delivers the Nobel lecture on radioactive substances.
30 June 1905	Albert Einstein Physicist	Special Relativity	Bern, Switzerland	Submits On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, establishing the special theory of relativity.
27 July 1905	Albert Einstein Physicist	Doctorate Approved	Zurich, Switzerland	The University of Zurich faculty unanimously approves Einstein's doctoral dissertation.
27 September 1905	Albert Einstein Physicist	Mass-Energy Equivalence	Bern, Switzerland	Submits the paper deriving the relation between mass and energy from special relativity.
1905	Albert Einstein Physicist	Photoelectric Quantum Explanation	Bern, Switzerland	Explains photoelectric emission by proposing that light transfers energy in discrete quanta to electrons.
1905	Philip Lenard	Nobel Prize	Germany	Winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics, for photoelectric effects & cathode rays
1905	Henri Poincare Mathematician	Relativity, Theory of	Paris, France	Poincare publishes work on the dynamics of the electron using Lorentz transformations and relativistic ideas
1905	John William Strutt Rayleigh, 3rd Baron · President of the Royal Society	Royal Society	Great Britain	Appointed President of the Royal Society
1905	Otto Wiener Professor	New Physics Institute Opens	Leipzig, Germany	Directs Leipzig physics as the university's new Physical Institute opens.
15 January 1906	Albert Einstein Physicist	Doctorate Formally Awarded	Zurich, Switzerland	The University of Zurich formally awards Einstein his doctorate in physics.
8 February 1906	Albert Einstein Physicist	Molecular Dimensions Paper Published	Bern, Switzerland	His revised dissertation on molecular dimensions is published in Annalen der Physik.
8 February 1906	Albert Einstein Physicist	Second Brownian Motion Paper Published	Bern, Switzerland	Publishes a follow-up analysis refining his theory of Brownian motion.
19 April 1906	Pierre Curie Physicist	Death of Pierre Curie	Paris, France	Dies after a street accident in Paris.
April 1906	Albert Einstein Physicist	Patent Office Promotion	Bern, Switzerland	Promoted to Technical Expert, second class, at the Swiss Patent Office.
5 September 1906	Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann	Death of Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann	Duino, Austria	Death of Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann
December 1906	Joseph John Thomson Physicist	Nobel Prize for Gas Conduction	Stockholm, Great Britain	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for investigations of electrical conduction through gases.
1906	Albert Einstein Physicist	Light Production and Absorption Paper	Bern, Switzerland	Publishes work extending the light-quantum hypothesis to the production and absorption of radiation.
1906	Paul Langevin Physicist	Curie Laboratory	Paris, France	Maintains scientific links with the Curie research circle.
1906	Joseph John Thomson Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Great Britain	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical and experimental investigations of electrical conduction through gases, work closely associated with the identification of the electron.
1907	Albert Einstein Physicist	Equivalence Principle	Bern, Switzerland	Formulates the equivalence principle, a decisive step toward a relativistic theory of gravitation.
1907	Albert Einstein Physicist	Quantum Theory of Specific Heat	Bern, Switzerland	Applies quantum ideas to the specific heat of solids, an early success of quantum theory.
1907	Albert Abraham Michelson Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for developing precision optical instruments and for spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with them.
1907	William Thomson Kelvin, 1st Baron	Death of William Thomson	Great Britain	Death of William Thomson
21 September 1908	Hermann Minkowski Mathematician	Spacetime	Cologne, Germany	Minkowski presents spacetime geometry and recasts special relativity in four dimensional form
1908	Albert Einstein Physicist	Privatdozent at Bern	Bern, Switzerland	Begins teaching at the University of Bern as a Privatdozent.
1908	Gabriel Lippmann Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, France	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for devising a method of reproducing colours photographically through interference phenomena.
1908	Edward Teller	Birth of Edward Teller	Hungary	Birth of Edward Teller, helped develop the 1st hydrogen bomb
July 1909	Albert Einstein Physicist	University of Geneva Honorary Doctorate	Geneva, Switzerland	Receives his first honorary doctorate, awarded by the University of Geneva.
2 December 1909	Albert Einstein Physicist	Zurich Physical Society Membership	Zurich, Switzerland	Becomes a member of the Physical Society of Zurich.
1909	Karl Ferdinand Braun Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Germany	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for contributions to wireless telegraphy, including important improvements in radio transmission and receiver technology.
1909	Albert Einstein Physicist	Salzburg Quantum Lecture	Salzburg, Switzerland	Presents a major lecture arguing that radiation displays both wave-like and particle-like properties.
1909	Albert Einstein Physicist	University of Zurich Appointment	Zurich, Switzerland	Becomes associate professor of theoretical physics at the University of Zurich.
1909	Harvey Fletcher Physicist	Oil-Drop Experiment Development	Chicago, United States of America	Develops the use of slowly evaporating oil droplets for precision measurements of elementary electric charge.
1909	Guglielmo Marconi Inventor	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Italy	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy and long-distance radio communication.
1909	Robert Andrews Millikan Physicist	Oil Drop Charge Experiment	Chicago, United States of America	Begins oil-drop measurements that isolate elementary electric charge by balancing electrical and gravitational forces on charged droplets.
1909	Max Planck Physicist	Special Relativity	Berlin, Germany	Planck promotes and develops relativistic dynamics after Einstein and helps establish special relativity among physicists
20 May 1910	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Doctoral Student	Doctorate Awarded	Vienna, Austria	Receives his doctorate from the University of Vienna for research on the conduction of electricity over the surface of insulators in moist air.
1910	Albert Einstein Physicist	Critical Opalescence Theory	Zurich, Switzerland	Explains critical opalescence using fluctuations near a liquid-gas critical point.
1910	Robert Andrews Millikan Physicist	First Oil-Drop Charge Results	Chicago, United States of America	Publishes early oil-drop results showing observed charges are integer multiples of a fundamental unit.
1910	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Physicist	Voluntary Military Service	Austria	Begins voluntary military service in fortress artillery after completing his doctorate, temporarily interrupting his academic work.
1910	Johannes Diderik van Der Waals	Nobel Prize	Netherlands	Winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics
28 March 1911	Heinz Maier-Leibnitz Nuclear Physicist	Birth of Heinz Maier-Leibnitz	Esslingen, Germany	Heinz Maier-Leibnitz is born in Esslingen.
28 March 1911	Heinz Maier-Leibnitz Nuclear Physicist	German Nuclear Physicist Born	Esslingen, Germany	The future German nuclear physicist and research leader is born.
June 1911	Albert Einstein Physicist	Light Deflection	Prague, Switzerland	Predicts that gravity should bend starlight and proposes a solar-eclipse test.
30 October 1911	Walther Nernst Physical Chemist	First Solvay Conference	Brussels, Germany	Participates in the Solvay meeting devoted to radiation and quanta.
30 October 1911	Walther Nernst Physical Chemist	Radiation and Quanta Conference	Brussels, Germany	Engages in international debate on quantum and thermodynamic problems.
30 October 1911	Max Planck Theoretical Physicist	First Solvay Conference	Brussels, Germany	Participates in the first Solvay Conference on radiation and quanta.
30 October 1911	Max Planck Theoretical Physicist	Quantum Theory Conference	Brussels, Germany	Discusses quantum theory with leading European physicists in Brussels.
30 October 1911	Heinrich Rubens Physicist	Experimental Radiation Physics	Brussels, Germany	Contributes expertise from precision measurements of infrared radiation.
30 October 1911	Heinrich Rubens Physicist	First Solvay Conference	Brussels, Germany	Attends the first Solvay Conference as an experimental physicist.
30 October 1911	Arnold Sommerfeld Theoretical Physicist	First Solvay Conference	Brussels, Germany	Attends the first Solvay Conference on radiation theory.
30 October 1911	Arnold Sommerfeld Theoretical Physicist	Quantum Physics Discussions	Brussels, Germany	Contributes to discussions concerning emerging quantum concepts.
10 December 1911	Wilhelm Wien Professor of Physics	Heat Radiation Recognition	Stockholm, Germany	Is honored for foundational discoveries concerning black-body heat radiation.
10 December 1911	Wilhelm Wien Professor of Physics	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Germany	Receives the Nobel Prize for laws governing thermal radiation.
11 December 1911	Wilhelm Wien Professor of Physics	Laws of Thermal Radiation	Stockholm, Germany	Reviews experimental and theoretical work leading toward quantum physics.
11 December 1911	Wilhelm Wien Professor of Physics	Nobel Lecture	Stockholm, Germany	Delivers his Nobel lecture on the laws of thermal radiation.
29 December 1911	Klaus Fuchs Physicist	Birth of Klaus Fuchs	Russelsheim, Germany	Klaus Fuchs is born in Russelsheim in the German Empire.
29 December 1911	Klaus Fuchs Physicist	German Physicist Born	Russelsheim, Germany	The future theoretical physicist is born into a German family.
1911	Albert Einstein Physicist	First Solvay Conference	Brussels, Switzerland	Participates in the first Solvay Conference, discussing radiation and quantum theory with leading physicists.
1911	Albert Einstein Professor of Physics	Professor at Prague	Prague, Switzerland	Becomes professor of theoretical physics at the German University in Prague.
1911	Robert Andrews Millikan Physicist	Elementary Electron Charge	Chicago, United States of America	Reports a precise value for the elementary electric charge from oil-drop measurements, strengthening the case for quantized charge.
1911	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Assistant Physicist	Assistant to Franz Exner	Vienna, Austria	Becomes an assistant in experimental physics under Franz Exner and gains laboratory experience that later informs his theoretical reasoning.
1911	Wihelm Wien	Discovery of Wiens Law	Germany	Winner of the Nobe Prize for Physics. Wiens law states that the hotter the body the shorter its radiation wavelegnth
1911	Wilhelm Wien Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Germany	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for discoveries concerning the laws governing thermal radiation, including the displacement law bearing his name.
7 August 1912	Victor Franz Hess Physicist	Cosmic Ray Balloon Flight	Aussig, Austria	Measures increasing ionization at high altitude during a balloon flight.
7 August 1912	Victor Franz Hess Physicist	Discovery of Cosmic Radiation	Aussig, Austria	Concludes that penetrating radiation reaches Earth from outer space.
1 October 1912	Albert Einstein Physicist	ETH Zurich Professorship	Zurich, Switzerland	Begins work as professor of theoretical physics at ETH Zurich.
1912	William Henry Bragg	Studies In Radioactivity	Great Britain	Publication of "Studies In Radioactivity"
1912	William Lawrence Bragg Physicist	Braggs Law	Cambridge, Great Britain	Formulates the mathematical law governing X-ray diffraction by crystals.
1912	William Lawrence Bragg Physicist	X-Ray Crystal Diffraction	Cambridge, Great Britain	Connects diffraction angles with atomic plane spacing.
1912	Nils Dalen	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Sweden	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for automatic regulators used with gas accumulators in lighthouses and buoys.
1912	Albert Einstein Physicist	Tensor Calculus Collaboration	Zurich, Switzerland	Works with Marcel Grossmann to master tensor calculus for a relativistic theory of gravitation.
1912	Albert Einstein Physicist	Zurich Notebook	Zurich, Switzerland	Uses the Zurich Notebook to explore candidate gravitational field equations and differential geometry.
1912	Marcel Grossmann Mathematician	General Relativity	Zurich, Germany	Grossmann introduces Einstein to tensor calculus needed for a relativistic theory of gravitation
1912	Max Theodore Felix von Laue	Discovery of X-Rays	Germany	Discovers interference of x-rays in crystals & is able to measure their wave lengths
1912	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Assistant Physicist	Radioactivity Research	Vienna, Austria	Investigates radioactivity and the statistical character of radioactive decay while working in Vienna.
1912	Charles Thomson Rees Wilson Physicist	Cloud Chamber Particle Tracks	Cambridge, Great Britain	Photographs tracks made by charged particles in a cloud chamber.
1912	Charles Thomson Rees Wilson Physicist	Ionizing Radiation Photography	Cambridge, Great Britain	Makes invisible ionizing radiation paths directly observable.
1 August 1913	Robert Andrews Millikan Physicist	Final Oil-Drop Charge Publication	Chicago, United States of America	Publishes the definitive oil-drop measurement of the elementary electric charge.
1913	Niels Bohr	Discovery of Electrons	Denmark	In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr postulated that electrons resided in quantized energy states, with the energy determined by the angular momentum of the electrons orbits about the nucleus
1913	Niels Henrik David Bohr Theoretical Physicist	Bohr Atomic Model	Copenhagen, Denmark	Publishes an atomic model with electrons occupying discrete energy states.
1913	Niels Henrik David Bohr Theoretical Physicist	Quantized Electron Orbits	Copenhagen, Denmark	Explains the hydrogen spectrum through quantum transitions between stationary orbits.
1913	William Henry Bragg Sir · Physicist	Crystal Diffraction Research	Leeds, Great Britain	Works with his son to establish practical X-ray crystallography.
1913	William Henry Bragg Sir · Physicist	X-Ray Spectrometer	Leeds, Great Britain	Develops instruments for measuring X-ray diffraction from crystals.
1913	William Lawrence Bragg Physicist	Sodium Chloride Crystal Structure	Cambridge, Great Britain	Determines the arrangement of atoms within sodium chloride crystals.
1913	William Lawrence Bragg Physicist	X-Ray Crystallography	Cambridge, Great Britain	Applies X-ray diffraction to reveal a crystal's internal structure.
1913	Albert Einstein Physicist	Einstein-Grossmann Collaboration	Zurich, Switzerland	Collaborates closely with Marcel Grossmann on the mathematical framework of gravitation.
1913	Albert Einstein Physicist	Entwurf Theory	Zurich, Switzerland	Publishes the Entwurf gravitational theory with Marcel Grossmann as an intermediate step toward general relativity.
1913	Marcel Grossmann Mathematician	General Relativity	Zurich, Germany	Grossmann coauthors the Entwurf theory and supplies mathematical tools for Einsteins gravitational research
1913	Henry Moseley Physicist	Atomic Number	Manchester, Great Britain	Establishes atomic number, placing uranium at 92.
1913	Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley Physicist	Atomic Number Ordering	Oxford, Great Britain	Shows that elements should be ordered by atomic number rather than atomic weight, providing the physical basis of the modern periodic table.
1913	Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley Physicist	Missing Atomic Numbers Identified	Oxford, Great Britain	Uses X-ray spectra to identify gaps in the sequence of atomic numbers and demonstrates that specific elements remain undiscovered.
1913	Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley Physicist	Moseley Law	Oxford, Great Britain	Establishes a precise relationship between characteristic X-ray frequencies and the nuclear charge associated with each element.
1913	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Assistant Physicist	Crystal Lattice Research	Vienna, Austria	Studies the kinetic theory of solids and the dynamics of crystal lattices as part of his early research programme.
1913	Joseph John Thomson Physicist	Neon Isotopes	Cambridge, Great Britain	Finds evidence that neon atoms occur with different masses.
1913	Joseph John Thomson Physicist	Positive-Ray Mass Analysis	Cambridge, Great Britain	Uses positive rays to reveal the element's isotopic composition.
5 February 1914	Alan Hodgkin	Birth of Alan Hodgkin	Great Britain	Birth of Alan Hodgkin
1 September 1914	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Lecturer	Habilitation	Vienna, Austria	Completes his habilitation and obtains the qualification required to teach independently at university level.
1914	Albert Einstein Physicist	Berlin Academy Appointment	Berlin, Germany	Moves to Berlin for a senior research appointment and membership of the Prussian Academy of Sciences.
1914	Albert Einstein Physicist	Covariance Problem in Gravitation	Berlin, Germany	Publishes work refining the mathematical and covariance problems of his developing gravitational theory.
1914	Albert Einstein Physicist	Manifesto to Europeans	Berlin, Germany	Co-signs a pacifist appeal opposing wartime nationalism among European intellectuals.
1914	James Franck Physicist	Quantized Electron Collision Energy	Berlin, Germany	With Gustav Hertz, shows that electrons transfer energy to mercury atoms in discrete amounts, confirming quantized atomic excitation.
1914	Gustav Hertz Physicist	Franck-Hertz Electron Collisions	Berlin, Germany	With James Franck, demonstrates discrete energy transfer when electrons collide with mercury atoms.
1914	Max Theodore Felix von Laue	Nobel Prize	Germany	Winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics
1914	Henry Moseley	Discovery of Atomic Numbers	Great Britain	Studies X-rays emitted by metals. Makes sense of the periodic table by stating elements can only have integral numbers
1914	Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley Physicist	Periodic Table Anomalies Resolved	Oxford, Great Britain	Explains why elements such as tellurium and iodine must be ordered contrary to atomic weight by showing that atomic number is the fundamental organising principle.
1914	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Artillery Officer	First World War Military Service	Austria	Enters wartime service as an artillery officer in the Austro-Hungarian forces while continuing to think and write about physics.
1914	John William Strutt Rayleigh, 3rd Baron	Rumford Medal	Great Britain	Awarded the Rumford Medal
4 November 1915	Albert Einstein Physicist	Restricted Covariance Equations	Berlin, Germany	Presents revised gravitational field equations to the Prussian Academy during his final push toward general relativity.
11 November 1915	Albert Einstein Physicist	Unimodular Gravitation Equations	Berlin, Germany	Presents another formulation of gravitation using a restricted coordinate condition with unit determinant.
20 November 1915	David Hilbert Mathematician	General Relativity	Gottingen, Germany	Hilbert submits a variational treatment of gravitational field equations during the final formulation of general relativity
25 November 1915	Albert Einstein Physicist	General Relativity Field Equations	Berlin, Germany	Presents the final generally covariant gravitational field equations to the Prussian Academy.
18 December 1915	Albert Einstein Physicist	Göttingen Society Corresponding Membership	Göttingen, Germany	Elected a corresponding member of the Royal Society of Sciences at Göttingen.
1915	William Henry Bragg	Nobel Prize	Great Britain	Winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics, studied crystalline structures using x-rays
1915	Albert Einstein Physicist	Einstein-de Haas Effect	Berlin, Germany	Publishes experimental work with Wander de Haas linking magnetism to angular momentum.
1915	Albert Einstein Physicist	Göttingen Relativity Lectures	Göttingen, Germany	Lectures on gravitation in Göttingen, stimulating intense discussion with leading mathematicians.
1915	Enrico Fermi Student	Early Physics Studies	Rome, Italy	As a teenager, Fermi intensively studies mathematics and physics and begins performing experiments with his friend Enrico Persico.
1915	Robert Andrews Millikan Physicist	Photoelectric Equation Verification	Chicago, United States of America	Experimentally verifies Einstein's relation between light frequency and the kinetic energy of emitted electrons.
1915	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Artillery Officer	Physics Research During War	Austria	Continues scientific work during military service and maintains active engagement with theoretical physics despite wartime duties.
January 1916	Karl Schwarzschild Astronomer	Schwarzschild Solution	Potsdam, Germany	Finds the exact spherical solution to Einstein's field equations, foundational for black hole theory.
December 1916	Albert Einstein Physicist	Relativity: The Special and General Theory	Berlin, Germany	Publishes his popular introduction to special and general relativity.
1916	Johannes Droste Physicist	General Relativity	Leiden, Netherlands	Droste independently derives the exterior solution for a spherical gravitational field in general relativity
1916	Albert Einstein Physicist	Foundation of General Relativity	Berlin, Germany	Publishes a systematic presentation of the general theory of relativity and its field equations.
1916	Albert Einstein Physicist	German Physical Society Presidency	Berlin, Germany	Serves as president of the German Physical Society during the consolidation of general relativity.
1916	Albert Einstein Physicist	Quantum Theory of Radiation	Berlin, Germany	Develops a quantum theory of radiation introducing transition probabilities later represented by Einstein coefficients.
1916	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Artillery Officer	Italian Front Service	Italian Front, Austria	Serves on the Italian front as an artillery officer while remaining intellectually active in physics.
1916	Manne Georg Siegbahn Experimental Physicist	Characteristic X-Ray Measurement	Lund, Sweden	Advances understanding of atomic electron shells through high-resolution spectroscopy.
1916	Manne Georg Siegbahn Experimental Physicist	Precision X-Ray Spectroscopy	Lund, Sweden	Develops improved instruments for precise measurement of X-ray spectra.
1917	Charles Glover Barkla	Nobel Prize	Great Britain	Winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics
1917	Albert Einstein Director	Kaiser Wilhelm Institute Directorship	Berlin, Germany	Becomes founding director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics.
1917	Albert Einstein Physicist	Stimulated Emission	Berlin, Germany	Formulates stimulated emission in his quantum theory of radiation, a principle later fundamental to lasers.
1917	Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman Professor · Palit Professor	Palit Chair of Physics	Calcutta, India	C. V. Raman takes the Palit Professorship of Physics at the University of Calcutta and expands his experimental research programme.
1917	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Physicist	Statistical Physics Work	Austria	Continues developing ideas in statistical and theoretical physics during the later years of the First World War.
1918	Albert Einstein Physicist	Zurich Guest Lectures	Zurich, Germany	Returns to Zurich for guest lectures while continuing work on relativity and quantum theory.
1918	Enrico Fermi Student	Scuola Normale Superiore Fellowship	Pisa, Italy	Wins a competitive fellowship to the Scuola Normale Superiore in Pisa and begins advanced university study in physics.
1918	Josef Lense Physicist	Frame Dragging	Vienna, Austria	Lense calculates relativistic frame dragging effects caused by rotating masses
1918	Max Planck Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Germany	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for originating quantum theory through his discovery of energy quanta in the study of black-body radiation.
1918	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Physicist	Colour Vision Research Begins	Vienna, Austria	Begins a substantial programme of research on physiological optics and colour vision that continues into the early 1920s.
1918	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Physicist	Return to Vienna Research	Vienna, Austria	Returns to academic work in Vienna after the war and resumes research in theoretical and experimental physics.
1918	Julian Schwinger	Birth of Julian Schwinger	United States of America	Birth of Julian Schwinger
1918	Hans Thirring Physicist	Frame Dragging	Vienna, Austria	Thirring works with Lense on the dragging of inertial frames predicted by general relativity
30 June 1919	John William Strutt Rayleigh, 3rd Baron	Death of John William Strutt	Great Britain	Death of John William Strutt
1919	Heinrich Barkhausen	Discovery of Barkhausen Law	Germany	Discovers discontinuities in the magnetization of ferrous metals
1919	Albert Einstein Physicist	International Scientific Fame	Berlin, Germany	Becomes internationally famous after eclipse observations are widely reported as confirming general relativity.
1919	Enrico Fermi Student	Pisa Physics Research	Pisa, Italy	Undertakes advanced experimental and theoretical physics work at Pisa while developing an unusually broad command of contemporary physics.
1919	Ernest Rutherford Physicist	Proton as Nuclear Charge Carrier	Cambridge, Great Britain	Identifies the hydrogen nucleus as a fundamental positive particle, helping connect atomic number with the positive charge of the atomic nucleus.
1919	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Physicist	Colour Theory Publications	Vienna, Austria	Publishes work on colour theory and physiological optics, extending his interests beyond conventional theoretical physics.
1919	John William Strutt Rayleigh, 3rd Baron · President of the Society for Psychical Research	Society for Psychical Research	Great Britain	Appointed President of the Society for Psychical Research
24 March 1920	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Physicist	Marriage to Annemarie Bertel	Austria	Marries Annemarie Bertel while establishing his academic career in Germany.
5 May 1920	Albert Einstein Physicist	Ether and Relativity Lecture	Leiden, Germany	Delivers the lecture Ether and the Theory of Relativity, redefining the concept in gravitational terms.
3 June 1920	Ernest Rutherford Physicist	Neutral Nuclear Particle Proposal	Cambridge, New Zealand	Suggests that a neutral proton-electron combination could exist inside atomic nuclei, anticipating the neutron.
27 October 1920	Albert Einstein Physicist	Leiden Special Professorship	Leiden, Germany	Begins official duties as special professor at Leiden University.
1920	Albert Einstein Physicist	Anti-Relativity Campaign	Berlin, Germany	Publicly confronts organized attacks on relativity amid growing political and antisemitic hostility.
1920	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Assistant	Jena Appointment	Jena, Austria	Accepts an academic assistantship in Jena, beginning a rapid series of university appointments in Germany.
1920	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Stuttgart Professorship	Stuttgart, Austria	Moves from Jena to Stuttgart as an extraordinary professor and continues research in theoretical physics and colour vision.
3 March 1921	Niels Henrik David Bohr Theoretical Physicist	Copenhagen Physics Institute Opened	Copenhagen, Denmark	Creates an international centre for atomic and quantum research.
3 March 1921	Niels Henrik David Bohr Theoretical Physicist	Institute for Theoretical Physics	Copenhagen, Denmark	Opens the University of Copenhagen institute devoted to theoretical physics.
2 April 1921	Albert Einstein Physicist	First Arrival in New York	New York, Germany	Arrives in New York during his first visit to the United States, including lectures and fundraising.
5 May 1921	Albert Einstein Physicist	Royal Society Foreign Membership	London, Germany	Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society.
9 June 1921	Albert Einstein Physicist	Manchester Honorary Doctorate and Relativity Lecture	Manchester, Germany	Receives an honorary Doctor of Science degree from the University of Manchester and lectures on relativity.
1921	Francis William Aston Physicist	Uranium Isotopes	Cambridge, Great Britain	Mass spectrograph work supports isotope studies of heavy elements.
1921	Albert Einstein Physicist	Hebrew University Fundraising Tour	United States, Germany	Uses his first American visit to support fundraising for the future Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
1921	Albert Einstein Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Germany	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for contributions to theoretical physics, particularly his explanation of the law governing the photoelectric effect.
1921	Albert Einstein Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Berlin, Germany	Awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical physics, especially the law of the photoelectric effect.
1921	Albert Einstein Physicist	Princeton Stafford Little Lectures	Princeton, Germany	Delivers four Stafford Little Lectures explaining special and general relativity.
1921	Enrico Fermi Student	Early Scientific Publication	Pisa, Italy	Publishes early scientific work while still a student at Pisa, demonstrating growing expertise in theoretical and experimental physics.
1921	Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman Physicist	Scattering of Light	Mediterranean Sea, India	C. V. Raman studies the blue colour of the Mediterranean and intensifies his investigation of light scattering in liquids.
1921	Carl Ramsauer Physicist	Ramsauer Effect	Berlin, Germany	Discovers an unexpected minimum in the scattering of low-energy electrons by noble-gas atoms, revealing their wave behaviour.
1921	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Breslau Professorship	Breslau, Austria	Takes an ordinary professorship at Breslau during a period of rapid advancement through German universities.
1921	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Zurich Chair of Theoretical Physics	Zurich, Austria	Accepts the chair of theoretical physics at the University of Zurich, beginning the most productive period of his scientific career.
10 December 1922	Niels Henrik David Bohr Theoretical Physicist	Atomic Structure Recognition	Stockholm, Denmark	Gains recognition for applying quantum ideas to the structure of atoms.
10 December 1922	Niels Henrik David Bohr Theoretical Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Denmark	Receives the physics prize for research on atomic structure and radiation.
14 December 1922	Albert Einstein Physicist	Kyoto Relativity Lecture	Kyoto, Germany	Explains how he developed the theory of relativity in a lecture at Kyoto University.
1922	Niels Bohr Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Denmark	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for investigations of atomic structure and the radiation emitted by atoms.
1922	Albert Einstein Physicist	Early Unified Field Program	Berlin, Germany	Begins sustained attempts to combine gravitation and electromagnetism within a single field framework.
1922	Albert Einstein Physicist	Japan Lecture Tour	Japan, Germany	Travels through Japan giving lectures and public talks on relativity and modern physics.
1922	Albert Einstein Physicist	The Meaning of Relativity	Princeton, Germany	The Meaning of Relativity is published from the four lectures Einstein delivered at Princeton in May 1921.
1922	Enrico Fermi Doctoral Student	Doctorate in Physics	Pisa, Italy	Receives his doctorate in physics from the University of Pisa after completing studies at the Scuola Normale Superiore.
1922	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Relativity Research	Pisa, Italy	Publishes work on relativistic mechanics and electrodynamics during the period immediately following completion of his doctorate.
1922	Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman Physicist	Molecular Diffraction	Calcutta, India	C. V. Raman develops his molecular diffraction approach to explain how light is scattered by liquids.
1922	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Zurich Thermodynamics Research	Zurich, Austria	Works on thermodynamics, statistical mechanics and the specific heats of solids during his early years at Zurich.
7 February 1923	Albert Einstein Physicist	Jerusalem Relativity Lecture	Jerusalem, Germany	Lectures in French on relativity during his visit to British Mandate Palestine.
13 February 1923	Albert Einstein Physicist	Jerusalem German Lecture	Jerusalem, Germany	Gives a second Jerusalem lecture on relativity, this time in German.
4 March 1923	Albert Einstein Physicist	Madrid Academy Corresponding Membership	Madrid, Germany	Becomes a corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Exact, Physical and Natural Sciences in Madrid.
8 March 1923	Albert Einstein Physicist	Madrid Honorary Doctorate	Madrid, Germany	Receives an honorary doctorate in science from the University of Madrid.
8 March 1923	Johannes Diderik van Der Waals	Death of Johannes Diderik van Der Waals	Netherlands	Death of Johannes Diderik van der Waals
7 June 1923	Albert Einstein Physicist	Pour le Merite for Sciences and Arts	Berlin, Germany	Is admitted to the Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts.
11 July 1923	Albert Einstein Physicist	Nobel Lecture	Gothenburg, Germany	Delivers his Nobel lecture on fundamental ideas and problems of relativity.
December 1923	Robert Andrews Millikan Physicist	Nobel Prize for Electron Charge	Stockholm, United States of America	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for elementary-charge measurements and photoelectric-effect work.
1923	Arthur Holly Compton Physicist	Compton Electron Recoil	St Louis, United States of America	Shows that X-rays scattered by electrons lose energy and momentum as expected from photon-electron collisions.
1923	Albert Einstein Physicist	Leiden Research Stay	Leiden, Germany	Spends an extended period in Leiden amid political threats in Germany, continuing scientific work.
1923	Enrico Fermi Research Fellow	Göttingen Fellowship	Göttingen, Italy	Spends several months in Göttingen on an Italian government fellowship working in the intellectual environment surrounding Max Born.
1923	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Quantum Theory Studies	Göttingen, Italy	Studies emerging quantum theory in Göttingen and deepens his familiarity with the mathematical methods being applied to atomic physics.
1923	Robert Millikan	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for work on the elementary electric charge and the photoelectric effect.
1923	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Atomic Spectra Research	Zurich, Austria	Investigates problems in atomic spectra as his attention increasingly shifts toward unresolved questions in quantum theory.
1923	Hermann Weyl Mathematician	Relativity, Theory of	Zurich, Germany	Weyl develops mathematical approaches to relativity and field theory that influence later gravitational research
20 June 1924	Albert Einstein Physicist	American Academy Foreign Honorary Membership	Berlin, Germany	Accepts election as a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
10 December 1924	Manne Georg Siegbahn Experimental Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Sweden	Receives the physics prize for discoveries in X-ray spectroscopy.
10 December 1924	Manne Georg Siegbahn Experimental Physicist	X-Ray Spectroscopy Recognition	Stockholm, Sweden	Is recognized for highly accurate methods mapping characteristic X-ray spectra.
1924	Satyendra Nath Bose Physicist	Bose Statistics	Dacca, India	Satyendra Nath Bose derives Planck's radiation law using a new statistical treatment of indistinguishable light quanta.
1924	Satyendra Nath Bose Physicist	Quantum Statistics Paper	Berlin, India	Bose's paper on Planck's law is translated and submitted for publication by Albert Einstein, bringing Bose statistics to international attention.
1924	Louis Victor de Broglie Theoretical Physicist	Matter Waves	Paris, France	Proposes that material particles possess wave properties.
1924	Louis Victor de Broglie Theoretical Physicist	Wave Nature of Electrons	Paris, France	Introduces the wavelength relation later confirmed by electron diffraction.
1924	Albert Einstein Physicist	Bose Paper Translation	Berlin, Germany	Translates Satyendra Nath Bose's paper on Planck's law into German and arranges its publication.
1924	Albert Einstein Physicist	Bose-Einstein Condensation Prediction	Berlin, Germany	Predicts that ideal bosonic particles can accumulate in the lowest quantum state at low temperature.
1924	Albert Einstein Physicist	Bose-Einstein Statistics	Berlin, Germany	Extends Bose's statistical method from photons to particles of an ideal gas.
1924	Enrico Fermi Lecturer	Florence Lectureship	Florence, Italy	Returns to Italy and becomes lecturer in mathematical physics and mechanics at the University of Florence.
1924	Enrico Fermi Research Fellow	Leiden Rockefeller Fellowship	Leiden, Italy	Works in Leiden on a Rockefeller Fellowship with Paul Ehrenfest and becomes more closely connected to leading European theoretical physicists.
1924	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Quantum Statistics Research	Zurich, Austria	Begins intensive work on quantum statistics and the statistical behaviour of particles, helping redirect his research toward quantum foundations.
1924	Karl Manne Georg Siegbahn	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Sweden	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for discoveries and research in X-ray spectroscopy.
30 November 1925	Albert Einstein Physicist	Copley Medal	London, Germany	Awarded the Royal Society's Copley Medal for relativity and contributions to quantum theory.
15 December 1925	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Einstein Gas Theory Paper	Zurich, Austria	Submits a paper on Einstein's gas theory that forms part of the immediate intellectual background to his development of wave mechanics.
1925	Pierre Victor Auger Physicist	Auger Electron Effect	Paris, France	Identifies radiationless atomic relaxation in which energy ejects a secondary electron, now called an Auger electron.
1925	Albert Einstein Physicist	Hebrew University Administrative Council	Berlin, Germany	Joins the administrative council of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
1925	Albert Einstein Physicist	Quantum Mechanics Critique Begins	Berlin, Germany	Engages critically with the emerging matrix and wave formulations of quantum mechanics.
1925	Albert Einstein Physicist	Second Quantum Gas Paper	Berlin, Germany	Publishes further work on the quantum theory of the ideal monatomic gas.
1925	Albert Einstein Physicist	South America Lecture Tour	South America, Germany	Tours Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil, giving lectures and meeting scientific and civic audiences.
1925	Enrico Fermi Lecturer	Quantum Gas Research	Florence, Italy	Investigates quantum gases and statistical problems that directly precede his formulation of Fermi statistics.
1925	Samuel Goudsmit Physicist	Electron Spin Hypothesis	Leiden, Netherlands	With George Uhlenbeck, proposes that the electron possesses intrinsic angular momentum called spin.
1925	Wolfgang Ernst Pauli Theoretical Physicist	Electron State Restriction	Hamburg, Austria	Explains atomic shell structure through a fundamental quantum restriction.
1925	Wolfgang Ernst Pauli Theoretical Physicist	Pauli Exclusion Principle	Hamburg, Austria	Formulates the rule preventing identical electrons from sharing one quantum state.
1925	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	de Broglie Matter Waves Influence	Zurich, Austria	Studies Louis de Broglie's matter-wave ideas and recognizes that they may provide a new route to understanding atomic structure.
1925	George Eugene Uhlenbeck Physicist	Electron Spin Hypothesis	Leiden, Netherlands	With Samuel Goudsmit, proposes that the electron possesses an intrinsic angular momentum called spin.
27 January 1926	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	First Eigenvalue Paper Submitted	Zurich, Austria	Submits the first paper in his series on quantization as an eigenvalue problem, applying wave mechanics to the hydrogen atom.
29 January 1926	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Birth	Jhang, Pakistan	Is born in Jhang in Punjab, then part of British India and now in Pakistan.
6 April 1926	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Second Eigenvalue Paper	Zurich, Austria	Publishes the second paper in his wave-mechanics series and extends the new formalism beyond the first hydrogen calculations.
4 May 1926	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Wave and Matrix Mechanics Equivalence	Zurich, Austria	Publishes a demonstration that his wave mechanics and Heisenberg's matrix mechanics are mathematically equivalent formulations of quantum theory.
9 July 1926	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Coherent State Harmonic Oscillator Paper	Zurich, Austria	Publishes work on the relation between microscopic and macroscopic mechanics that introduces what later become known as coherent states for the harmonic oscillator.
1 December 1926	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Undulatory Theory Physical Review Paper	Zurich, Austria	Publishes an English-language account of wave mechanics in Physical Review under the title An Undulatory Theory of the Mechanics of Atoms and Molecules.
1926	Albert Einstein Physicist	Rupp Radiation Experiments	Berlin, Germany	Collaborates with Emil Rupp on proposed tests of whether atomic radiation behaves as waves or quanta.
1926	Albert Einstein Physicist	Schrodinger Wave Mechanics Discussion	Berlin, Germany	Studies and discusses Schrödinger's wave mechanics while questioning its physical interpretation.
1926	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Fermi Gas Theory	Florence, Italy	Applies his new statistics to an ideal gas of particles subject to the Pauli exclusion principle and establishes the theoretical basis of a degenerate Fermi gas.
1926	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Fermi-Dirac Electron Statistics	Rome, Italy	Develops quantum statistics for indistinguishable particles obeying the Pauli exclusion principle, providing the statistical framework now known as Fermi-Dirac statistics.
1926	Enrico Fermi Professor	Rome Theoretical Physics Chair	Rome, Italy	Wins the newly created chair of theoretical physics at the University of Rome and begins building an influential research school.
1926	August Karolus Physicist	Kerr Cell Light-Speed Measurement	Leipzig, Germany	Uses a Kerr-cell method in Leipzig to obtain a highly accurate measurement of light speed.
1926	August Karolus Professor	Physics Professorship	Leipzig, Germany	Receives a Leipzig professorship and develops high-speed optical and television-related techniques.
1926	Oskar Benjamin Klein Theoretical Physicist	Klein-Gordon Equation	Copenhagen, Sweden	Co-develops a relativistic wave equation for spin-zero particles.
1926	Oskar Benjamin Klein Theoretical Physicist	Relativistic Wave Equation	Copenhagen, Sweden	Extends quantum wave mechanics to particles moving near light speed.
1926	Robert Millikan	Discovery of Cosmic Rays	United States of America	"The pulse of the universe", demonstrates radiation originates beyond the earth
1926	Abdus Salam	Birth of Abdus Salam	Pakistan	Birth of Abdus Salam
1926	Erwin Schrodinger Physicist	Wave Equation for Atomic Electrons	Zurich, Austria	Formulates wave mechanics in which electron states in atoms are represented by wavefunctions obeying the Schrodinger equation.
1926	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Hydrogen Spectrum Wave Mechanics	Zurich, Austria	Uses the new wave equation to derive the allowed energy levels of the hydrogen atom from an eigenvalue problem rather than prescribed electron orbits.
1926	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Wave Function Interpretation	Zurich, Austria	Proposes a continuous wave-based physical interpretation of the quantum state while developing his new formulation of quantum mechanics.
1926	Llewellyn Thomas Physicist	Thomas Precession	Cambridge, Great Britain	Derives the relativistic precession that resolves the factor needed in electron spin-orbit coupling.
September 1927	Niels Henrik David Bohr Theoretical Physicist	Complementarity Principle	Como, Denmark	Presents complementarity as a principle for interpreting quantum phenomena.
September 1927	Niels Henrik David Bohr Theoretical Physicist	Quantum Measurement Interpretation	Como, Denmark	Argues that mutually exclusive experimental descriptions can both be necessary.
October 1927	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Solvay Quantum Theory Discussions	Brussels, Austria	Takes part in the fifth Solvay Conference, where leading physicists debate the interpretation and foundations of the newly developed quantum mechanics.
1927	Arthur Holly Compton Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the change in wavelength that occurs when X-rays scatter from electrons, demonstrating the particle-like properties of radiation.
1927	Clinton Joseph Davisson Physicist	Electron Diffraction from Nickel	New York, United States of America	With Lester Germer, observes diffraction of electrons from a nickel crystal and directly confirms the wave character of matter.
1927	Peter Debye Professor	Leipzig Professorship	Leipzig, Netherlands	Accepts a Leipzig professorship and becomes director of the university's Physical Institute.
1927	Albert Einstein Physicist	Bohr-Einstein Quantum Debate	Brussels, Germany	Challenges Niels Bohr with thought experiments testing the completeness of quantum mechanics.
1927	Albert Einstein Physicist	Fifth Solvay Conference	Brussels, Germany	Participates in the fifth Solvay Conference and debates the interpretation of quantum mechanics.
1927	Albert Einstein Physicist	Motion from Field Equations	Berlin, Germany	Investigates with Jakob Grommer whether particle motion can follow directly from gravitational field equations.
1927	Albert Einstein Physicist	Princeton Research Professorship Invitation	Princeton, Germany	Receives an invitation to accept a research professorship at Princeton University.
1927	Enrico Fermi Professor	Rome Physics Group Formation	Rome, Italy	Builds a collaborative group of young physicists in Rome that later becomes famous for major advances in nuclear and particle physics.
1927	Enrico Fermi Professor	Thomas-Fermi Atomic Model	Rome, Italy	Develops the statistical Thomas-Fermi model for estimating the distribution of electrons in many-electron atoms.
1927	Lester Germer Physicist	Electron Diffraction from Nickel	New York, United States of America	With Clinton Davisson, observes electron diffraction from a nickel crystal and confirms matter-wave behaviour.
1927	Werner Heisenberg Professor	Leipzig Professorship	Leipzig, Germany	Becomes professor at Leipzig University and director of the Institute for Theoretical Physics.
1927	Alexander Reid Physicist	Electron Diffraction Through Foils	Aberdeen, Great Britain	Works with George Paget Thomson on electron diffraction through thin metal foils.
1927	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Berlin Scientific Colloquia	Berlin, Austria	Participates actively in the major physics colloquia of Berlin after succeeding Max Planck in the city's leading theoretical-physics chair.
1927	George Paget Thomson Physicist	Electron Diffraction Through Metal Foils	Aberdeen, Great Britain	Independently demonstrates electron diffraction by transmitting fast electrons through thin metal foils.
1927	Charles Thomson Rees Wilson Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Great Britain	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for developing the cloud-chamber method that makes the tracks of electrically charged particles visible.
28 February 1928	Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman Physicist	Raman Effect	Calcutta, India	C. V. Raman and his collaborators observe the inelastic scattering of light now known as the Raman effect.
13 April 1928	Albert Einstein Physicist	Helen Dukas Becomes Assistant	Berlin, Germany	Employs Helen Dukas as his secretary and assistant, beginning a long professional association.
14 June 1928	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Birth	New York City, Belgium	Is born in New York City before later building his scientific career in Belgium.
1928	Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac Physicist	Relativistic Electron Equation	Cambridge, Great Britain	Formulates a relativistic quantum equation for the electron that naturally incorporates spin and implies antimatter states.
1928	Albert Einstein Physicist	Teleparallel Unified Field Theory	Berlin, Germany	Develops a unified-field approach using distant parallelism, also called teleparallel geometry.
1928	Enrico Fermi Professor	Introduction to Atomic Physics Teaching	Rome, Italy	Expands advanced teaching in atomic and theoretical physics at Rome and trains a generation of Italian physicists in modern quantum methods.
1928	Ralph Howard Fowler Physicist	Field Electron Emission Theory	Cambridge, Great Britain	With Lothar Nordheim, explains electron emission from metals in strong electric fields as quantum tunnelling.
1928	Werner Heisenberg Physicist	Quantum Theory Research	Leipzig, Germany	Develops applications of quantum mechanics to atomic, molecular and solid-state physics in Leipzig.
1928	Lothar Nordheim Physicist	Field Electron Emission Theory	Cambridge, Germany	With Ralph Fowler, explains strong-field electron emission from metals using quantum tunnelling.
1928	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Nobel Prize Nomination Begins	Austria	Receives early nominations for the Nobel Prize in Physics as the international significance of his wave-mechanics work becomes widely recognized.
1928	Arnold Sommerfeld Physicist	Quantum Free-Electron Model	Munich, Germany	Applies Fermi-Dirac statistics to conduction electrons in metals, improving the classical Drude model.
29 May 1929	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Birth	Newcastle upon Tyne, Great Britain	Is born in Newcastle upon Tyne to a Scottish mother and an English father who worked as a BBC sound engineer.
28 June 1929	Albert Einstein Physicist	Max Planck Medal	Berlin, Germany	Receives the inaugural Max Planck Medal for outstanding achievement in theoretical physics.
1929	Felix Bloch Physicist	Bloch Electron States in Crystals	Zurich, Switzerland	Shows that electrons moving in a periodic crystal potential have wavefunctions with the periodic form now called Bloch states.
1929	Louis de Broglie Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, France	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the wave nature of electrons and establishing the concept of matter waves.
1929	Albert Einstein Physicist	Unified Field Theory Publication	Berlin, Germany	Publishes a widely publicized unified-field theory based on teleparallel geometry.
1929	Enrico Fermi Professor	Royal Academy of Italy Membership	Rome, Italy	Is elected to the Royal Academy of Italy, receiving national recognition for his rapidly growing scientific reputation.
1929	Lester Germer Physicist	Polarized Electron Scattering Data	New York, United States of America	Records low-energy electron scattering data later recognized as evidence of significant electron polarization.
1929	Friedrich Hund Professor	Leipzig Appointment	Leipzig, Germany	Joins Leipzig University as professor of mathematical physics.
1929	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Wave Mechanics Recognition	Berlin, Austria	Continues receiving international recognition for wave mechanics as his formulation becomes a standard foundation of quantum theory.
7 November 1930	Albert Einstein Physicist	ETH Zurich Honorary Doctorate	Zurich, Germany	Receives an honorary Doctor of Science degree from ETH Zurich.
1930	Herbert Becker Physicist	Beryllium Penetrating Radiation	Giessen, Germany	With Walther Bothe, detects penetrating radiation from beryllium bombarded by alpha particles.
1930	Felix Bloch Physicist	Doctoral Research in Leipzig	Leipzig, Switzerland	Completes doctoral research in Leipzig under Werner Heisenberg.
1930	Walther Bothe Physicist	Beryllium Penetrating Radiation	Giessen, Germany	With Herbert Becker, observes unusually penetrating radiation when alpha particles strike beryllium.
1930	Albert Einstein Physicist	First Caltech Winter Visit	Pasadena, Germany	Begins an extended academic visit to the California Institute of Technology.
1930	Albert Einstein Physicist	Sixth Solvay Conference	Brussels, Germany	Attends the sixth Solvay Conference and continues discussions on quantum theory and field physics.
1930	Enrico Fermi Professor	Quantum Electrodynamics Work	Rome, Italy	Pursues research in quantum electrodynamics and spectroscopic theory while leading the theoretical physics programme in Rome.
1930	Friedrich Hund Physicist	Molecular Quantum Theory	Leipzig, Germany	Develops quantum-mechanical approaches to molecular structure while working in Leipzig.
1930	Nevill Francis Mott Physicist	Relativistic Electron Scattering	Cambridge, Great Britain	Develops a quantum treatment of electron scattering by atoms that includes electron spin and relativistic effects.
1930	Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, India	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for work on the scattering of light and for discovering the optical effect now known as the Raman effect.
1930	Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, India	C. V. Raman receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on light scattering and the discovery of the Raman effect.
1930	Burton Richter	Birth of Burton Richter	United States of America	Birth of Burton Richter
1930	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Quantum Foundations Research	Berlin, Austria	Continues research on the conceptual foundations of quantum theory while questioning purely statistical interpretations of the wave function.
1930	Edward Teller Physicist	Doctoral Study in Leipzig	Leipzig, Hungary	Studies theoretical physics in Leipzig under Werner Heisenberg.
23 May 1931	Albert Einstein Physicist	Oxford Honorary Doctorate	Oxford, Germany	Receives an honorary Doctor of Science degree from the University of Oxford.
1931	Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Physicist	White Dwarf Theory	Cambridge, India	Chandrasekhar develops and publishes relativistic models of degenerate stars that establish a limiting mass for white dwarfs.
1931	Albert Einstein Physicist	Oxford Rhodes Lectures	Oxford, Germany	Gives three Rhodes Memorial Lectures on relativity, cosmology and his latest work in theoretical physics.
1931	Enrico Fermi Professor	Rome Nuclear Physics Shift	Rome, Italy	Begins shifting the focus of his research group from atomic spectroscopy toward the emerging problems of nuclear physics.
1931	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Berlin Theoretical Physics Research	Berlin, Austria	Maintains an active programme of theoretical research in Berlin while engaging with leading physicists working on quantum mechanics and field theory.
1931	Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker Physicist	Physics Study in Leipzig	Leipzig, Germany	Studies modern theoretical physics in Leipzig during the Heisenberg-Hund period.
27 February 1932	James Chadwick Physicist	Possible Existence of a Neutron	Cambridge, Great Britain	Publishes evidence that the penetrating beryllium radiation consists of neutral particles with roughly proton mass.
17 March 1932	Albert Einstein Physicist	Leopoldina Membership	Halle, Germany	Becomes a member of the German Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina.
June 1932	James Chadwick Physicist	The Existence of a Neutron	Cambridge, Great Britain	Publishes a fuller experimental account establishing the neutron as a distinct nuclear particle.
6 November 1932	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Birth	Etterbeek, Belgium	Is born in Etterbeek, Belgium, into a Jewish family.
December 1932	Werner Heisenberg Physicist	Nobel Prize Awarded	Leipzig, Germany	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics while serving as professor at Leipzig University.
1932	Carl David Anderson	Discovery of Electrons	United States of America	Discovers the positive electron
1932	James Chadwick Physicist	Discovery of Neutron	Cambridge, Great Britain	Discovers the neutron, clarifying nuclear structure and explaining how isotopes of the same element can share an atomic number while differing in mass.
1932	James Chadwick Physicist	Neutron Mass Estimate	Cambridge, Great Britain	Uses recoil measurements from several light elements to estimate the mass of the newly identified neutron.
1932	Albert Einstein Physicist	Institute for Advanced Study Appointment	Princeton, Germany	Accepts appointment to the newly founded Institute for Advanced Study.
1932	Enrico Fermi Professor	Neutron Physics Programme	Rome, Italy	Recognizes the importance of the newly discovered neutron and starts directing increasing attention toward neutron-induced nuclear processes.
1932	Werner Heisenberg Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Germany	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for creating quantum mechanics and applying the theory to the allotropic forms of hydrogen.
1932	Werner Heisenberg Physicist	Proton-Neutron Nuclear Model	Leipzig, Germany	Develops a nuclear model treating protons and neutrons as the principal constituents of atomic nuclei.
1932	Werner Heisenberg Physicist	Quantum Mechanics Recognition	Leipzig, Germany	His Leipzig institute gains international prominence after his Nobel recognition for quantum mechanics.
1932	Dmitri Ivanenko Physicist	Nuclear Proton-Neutron Model	Leningrad, Russia	Proposes that atomic nuclei are composed of protons and neutrons rather than nuclear electrons.
1932	Frederic Joliot-Curie Physicist	Paraffin Proton Ejection	Paris, France	With Irene Joliot-Curie, reports proton ejection caused by penetrating beryllium radiation.
1932	Irene Joliot-Curie Physicist	Paraffin Proton Ejection	Paris, France	With Frederic Joliot-Curie, observes energetic protons ejected from paraffin by penetrating beryllium radiation.
1932	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Quantum Interpretation Debate	Berlin, Austria	Continues challenging aspects of the emerging Copenhagen interpretation and argues for a more complete wave-based account of quantum phenomena.
28 March 1933	Albert Einstein Physicist	Leaves Prussian Academy	Belgium, Switzerland	Resigns from the Prussian Academy of Sciences after deciding not to return to Nazi Germany.
3 May 1933	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Birth	New York City, United States of America	Is born in New York City and later develops an early interest in theoretical physics.
12 September 1933	Leo Szilard Physicist	Neutron Chain Reaction Concept	London, Hungary	Conceives a neutron-driven nuclear chain reaction after reading about Rutherford comments on atomic energy.
December 1933	Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac Physicist	Nobel Prize for Quantum Electron Theory	Stockholm, Great Britain	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for new forms of atomic theory that include relativistic electron states.
1933	Hans Albrecht Bethe Physicist	Leipzig Physics Lectures	Leipzig, Germany	Takes part in advanced theoretical-physics activity associated with Leipzig's research community.
1933	Patrick Blackett Physicist	Electron-Positron Pair Tracks	Cambridge, Great Britain	With Giuseppe Occhialini, photographs cosmic-ray tracks showing electron-positron pair creation.
1933	Wander Johannes de Haas Physicist	Leipzig Physics Lectures	Leipzig, Netherlands	Participates in Leipzig scientific meetings during the Debye-Heisenberg-Hund era.
1933	Peter Debye Physicist	Leipzig Lecture Weeks	Leipzig, Netherlands	Organises Leipzig lecture weeks attracting leading international physicists.
1933	Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac Physicist	Leipzig Physics Lectures	Leipzig, Great Britain	Visits Leipzig for advanced physics lectures during the city's theoretical-physics heyday.
1933	Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Great Britain	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for developing new productive forms of atomic theory, including a relativistic quantum theory of the electron.
1933	Albert Einstein Physicist	Oxford Lecture on Theoretical Physics	Oxford, Switzerland	Lectures at Oxford on the methods and foundations of theoretical physics.
1933	Albert Einstein Physicist	Permanent Move to Princeton	Princeton, Switzerland	Settles in the United States after the Nazi rise to power and joins the Institute for Advanced Study.
1933	Albert Einstein Physicist	Renounces German Citizenship	Belgium, Switzerland	Renounces German citizenship after the Nazi seizure of power while retaining Swiss citizenship.
1933	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Beta Decay Theory Development	Rome, Italy	Formulates the fundamental ideas of his beta-decay theory by combining quantum field concepts with Wolfgang Pauli's neutrino hypothesis.
1933	Friedrich Hund Physicist	Leipzig Theoretical Physics	Leipzig, Germany	Helps make Leipzig an international centre for theoretical and nuclear physics.
1933	Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitza Physicist	Leipzig Physics Lectures	Leipzig, Russia	Visits Leipzig for scientific lectures during the university's golden period in physics.
1933	Hendrik Anthony Kramers Physicist	Leipzig Physics Lectures	Leipzig, Netherlands	Visits Leipzig during international lecture programmes organised by Peter Debye.
1933	Nevill Francis Mott Physicist	Leipzig Physics Lectures	Leipzig, Great Britain	Participates in Leipzig scientific lecture meetings organised around the university physics institutes.
1933	Giuseppe Occhialini Physicist	Electron-Positron Pair Tracks	Cambridge, Italy	With Patrick Blackett, develops coincidence methods that reveal electron-positron pair production.
1933	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Nobel Laureate	Nobel Lecture on Wave Mechanics	Stockholm, Austria	Presents his Nobel lecture on wave mechanics and explains the development and physical meaning of the new quantum formalism.
1933	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Austria	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discoveries in atomic theory and quantum mechanics.
1933	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Nobel Laureate	Nobel Prize Shared with Paul Dirac	Stockholm, Austria	Shares the 1933 Nobel Prize in Physics with Paul Dirac for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory.
October 1934	Edoardo Amaldi Physicist	Slow Neutron Experiments	Rome, Italy	Participates in the Rome group discovery that slowed neutrons produce much stronger activation effects.
October 1934	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Slow Neutron Enhancement	Rome, Italy	Discovers with his Rome group that slowing neutrons with hydrogen-rich material such as paraffin greatly increases their effectiveness in producing nuclear reactions.
October 1934	Bruno Pontecorvo Physicist	Slow Neutron Experiments	Rome, Italy	Contributes to the Rome experiments establishing the unusually high effectiveness of slow neutrons.
October 1934	Franco Rasetti Physicist	Slow Neutron Experiments	Rome, Italy	Works with Fermi group on experiments revealing the enhanced action of slow neutrons.
October 1934	Emilio Segre Physicist	Slow Neutron Experiments	Rome, Italy	Participates in experiments showing that moderation strongly increases neutron-induced radioactivity.
28 December 1934	Albert Einstein Physicist	Josiah Willard Gibbs Lecture	Pittsburgh, Switzerland	Delivers the Gibbs Lecture on an elementary proof of the equivalence of mass and energy.
1934	Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov Physicist	Cherenkov Radiation	Moscow, Russia	Observes blue light emitted when charged particles move rapidly through a medium.
1934	Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov Physicist	Luminescence in Water	Moscow, Russia	The achievement marks luminescence in water as an important Russian scientific milestone.
1934	Peter Debye Professor	Departure from Leipzig	Leipzig, Netherlands	Leaves his Leipzig professorship after seven years directing major experimental and theoretical research.
1934	Albert Einstein Physicist	On the Method of Theoretical Physics	Princeton, Switzerland	Publishes reflections on how fundamental theoretical physics develops from principles and mathematical structure.
1934	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Artificial Radioactivity Programme	Rome, Italy	Organizes a systematic programme of neutron irradiation experiments that produces artificial radioactivity in many different elements.
1934	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Beta Decay Electron Theory	Rome, Italy	Develops a quantitative theory of beta decay in which an electron and a neutrino are created during a weak nuclear transformation.
1934	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Neutron Bombardment	Rome, Italy	Bombards many elements, including uranium, with neutrons during experiments on neutron-induced artificial radioactivity.
1934	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Neutron Irradiation of Elements	Rome, Italy	Leads the Rome group in exposing a wide range of elements to neutrons and cataloguing the radioactive products created by nuclear transformations.
1934	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Slow Neutron Theory Interpretation	Rome, Italy	Interprets the enhanced effectiveness of moderated neutrons as a consequence of their reduced speed and greater probability of nuclear capture.
1934	Lise Meitner Physicist	Uranium Research	Berlin, Germany	Begins uranium neutron research with Hahn and Strassmann.
1934	Ida Noddack Physicist	Fission Hypothesis	Berlin, Italy	Suggests uranium nuclei might break into large fragments.
1934	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Visiting Lecturer	Princeton Lectures	Princeton, Austria	Delivers lectures at Princeton University on quantum mechanics and related theoretical problems after leaving Germany.
1934	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Princeton Position Declined	Princeton, Austria	Declines an offered permanent position at Princeton University and continues his search for a suitable European academic post.
1934	Leo Szilard Physicist	Neutron Chain Reaction Patent	London, Hungary	Files patent claims describing neutron multiplication and a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
15 May 1935	Albert Einstein Physicist	EPR Paper	Princeton, Switzerland	Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen publish their argument that quantum mechanics may not provide a complete description of physical reality.
15 May 1935	Albert Einstein Physicist	Franklin Medal	Philadelphia, Switzerland	Receives the Franklin Medal in recognition of his work in relativity and the photoelectric effect.
December 1935	James Chadwick Physicist	Nobel Prize for Neutron Discovery	Stockholm, Great Britain	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of the neutron.
1935	Homi Jehangir Bhabha Physicist	Bhabha Scattering	Cambridge, India	Homi Bhabha calculates electron-positron scattering, producing the result later known as Bhabha scattering.
1935	James Chadwick Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Great Britain	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the neutron, a neutral nuclear particle fundamental to understanding atomic nuclei.
1935	Albert Einstein Physicist	Einstein-Rosen Bridge	Princeton, Switzerland	With Nathan Rosen, studies bridge solutions in general relativity connecting two sheets of spacetime.
1935	Enrico Fermi Professor	Neutron Physics Consolidation	Rome, Italy	Consolidates the Rome group's results on neutron-induced reactions and establishes slow-neutron methods as a major tool of experimental nuclear physics.
1935	Enrico Fermi Professor	Nobel Prize Nomination	Rome, Italy	Receives nominations for the Nobel Prize in Physics as international recognition of his neutron and nuclear research grows.
1935	Werner Heisenberg Physicist	Nuclear Physics Research	Leipzig, Germany	Continues nuclear and quantum research at Leipzig with students from several countries.
1935	Nathan Rosen Physicist	Einstein-Rosen Bridge	Princeton, United States of America	Rosen coauthors work with Einstein on bridge solutions of the gravitational field equations
1935	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Theoretical Physicist	Entanglement Concept	Oxford, Austria	Introduces and develops the concept later known as quantum entanglement to describe the inseparability of correlated quantum systems.
1935	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Theoretical Physicist	EPR Response Papers	Oxford, Austria	Responds to the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen argument with papers exploring the consequences of quantum correlations and the completeness of quantum mechanics.
1935	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Theoretical Physicist	Quantum Superposition Thought Experiment	Oxford, Austria	Highlights the tension between microscopic superposition and everyday observation.
1935	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Theoretical Physicist	Schrodingers Cat	Oxford, Austria	Introduces the cat thought experiment to illustrate quantum measurement problems.
1935	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Theoretical Physicist	Steering Discussion	Oxford, Austria	Analyzes how measurement choices on one part of an entangled system can constrain descriptions of the other, anticipating the modern concept of quantum steering.
15 January 1936	Albert Einstein Physicist	US Declaration of Intention	Trenton, Switzerland	Files a declaration of intention to become a citizen of the United States.
December 1936	Peter Debye Physicist	Nobel Prize in Chemistry	Stockholm, Netherlands	Receives the Nobel Prize in Chemistry after major research carried out during his Leipzig period.
1936	Felix Bloch Physicist	Neutron Magnetic Moment Prediction	Stanford, Switzerland	Predicts that the neutron should possess a magnetic moment despite having no net electric charge.
1936	Niels Bohr Physicist	Compound Nucleus Theory	Copenhagen, Denmark	Develops the compound-nucleus picture used to understand neutron capture and nuclear reactions.
1936	Niels Henrik David Bohr Theoretical Physicist	Compound Nucleus Model	Copenhagen, Denmark	Proposes that an incoming particle forms a temporary compound nucleus.
1936	Niels Henrik David Bohr Theoretical Physicist	Nuclear Reaction Theory	Copenhagen, Denmark	Provides a framework for explaining many nuclear reactions and resonance effects.
1936	Gregory Breit Physicist	Neutron Resonance Formula	United States of America, United States of America	With Eugene Wigner, formulates resonance theory for neutron-induced nuclear reactions.
1936	Walter Elsasser Physicist	Neutron Diffraction Prediction	Paris, Germany	Publishes the theoretical prediction that thermal neutrons should show crystal diffraction.
1936	Enrico Fermi Professor	International Neutron Research Recognition	Rome, Italy	Becomes internationally recognized as a leading authority on neutron physics through continued publications, lectures and experimental results.
1936	Victor Francis Hess	Discovery of Cosmic Rays	United States of America	Winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery of cosmic rays
1936	Victor Francis Hess	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Austria	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering cosmic radiation.
1936	Dana P. Mitchell Physicist	Neutron Bragg Reflection	United States of America, United States of America	With Philip Powers, independently demonstrates crystal diffraction of neutrons using magnesium oxide.
1936	Philip N. Powers Physicist	Neutron Bragg Reflection	United States of America, United States of America	With Dana Mitchell, observes orientation-dependent Bragg reflection of neutrons from magnesium oxide.
1936	Peter Preiswerk Physicist	Neutron Diffraction Demonstration	Paris, Switzerland	With Hans von Halban, experimentally demonstrates neutron diffraction using moderated neutrons and crystals.
1936	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Return to Austria	Graz, Austria	Returns to Austria to take a professorship at the University of Graz after several years in Britain.
1936	Eugene Wigner Physicist	Neutron Resonance Theory	Princeton, United States of America	With Gregory Breit, develops a resonance formula describing neutron capture by nuclei.
December 1937	Clinton Joseph Davisson Physicist	Nobel Prize for Electron Diffraction	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering electron diffraction from crystals.
December 1937	George Paget Thomson Physicist	Nobel Prize for Electron Diffraction	Stockholm, Great Britain	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for experimental discovery of electron diffraction by crystals.
1937	Luis Walter Alvarez Physicist	Nuclear K-Electron Capture Observed	Berkeley, United States of America	Provides the first experimental demonstration of nuclear K-electron capture by detecting characteristic X-rays following the capture of an orbital electron.
1937	Carl David Anderson	Discovery of Meson Particles	United States of America	Discovers the meson muon particle
1937	Homi Jehangir Bhabha Physicist	Cosmic Ray Cascade Theory	Cambridge, India	Homi Bhabha and Walter Heitler develop a cascade theory explaining electron and photon showers produced by high-energy cosmic rays.
1937	Marietta Blau Nuclear Physicist	Nuclear Disintegration Stars	Hafelekar, Austria	Records cosmic-ray nuclear reactions as star-shaped tracks in photographic emulsions.
1937	Marietta Blau Nuclear Physicist	Photographic Nuclear Emulsions	Hafelekar, Austria	Demonstrates a powerful photographic method for detecting high-energy particle interactions.
1937	Albert Einstein Physicist	Einstein-Infeld-Hoffmann Collaboration	Princeton, Switzerland	Works with Leopold Infeld and Banesh Hoffmann on deriving equations of motion from general relativity.
1937	Enrico Fermi Professor	Nobel Prize Nominations Continue	Rome, Italy	Receives numerous additional Nobel Prize nominations from prominent physicists who recognize the importance of his neutron research.
1937	Walter Heitler Physicist	Electron-Photon Cascade Theory	Cambridge, Germany	With Homi Bhabha, develops a cascade theory of electron, positron and photon showers in cosmic rays.
1937	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Graz Theoretical Physics Work	Graz, Austria	Continues research and teaching in theoretical physics at Graz while political conditions in Austria grow increasingly unstable.
1937	Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm Theoretical Physicist	Cherenkov Radiation Theory	Moscow, Russia	Co-develops the theory explaining the radiation observed by Pavel Cherenkov.
1937	Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm Theoretical Physicist	Superluminal Radiation	Moscow, Russia	The achievement marks superluminal radiation as an important Russian scientific milestone.
December 1938	Lise Meitner Physicist	Nuclear Fission	Kungalv, Austria	Interprets uranium splitting as nuclear fission.
1938	Albert Einstein Physicist	Einstein-Infeld-Hoffmann Equations	Princeton, Switzerland	Publishes work deriving approximate equations of motion for gravitating bodies from general relativity.
1938	Albert Einstein Physicist	Evolution of Physics Published	Princeton, Switzerland	Publishes The Evolution of Physics with Leopold Infeld for a broad readership.
1938	Enrico Fermi Nobel Laureate	Departure from Fascist Italy	Stockholm, Italy	Uses the journey to Stockholm for the Nobel ceremony as the opportunity to leave Fascist Italy permanently with his wife Laura and their children.
1938	Enrico Fermi Nobel Laureate	Emigration to the United States	New York, Italy	Travels from Stockholm to the United States after receiving the Nobel Prize and begins a new phase of his scientific career in America.
1938	Enrico Fermi	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Italy	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for demonstrating neutron-induced radioactivity and for discoveries concerning nuclear reactions produced by slow neutrons.
1938	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Dismissal after Anschluss	Graz, Austria	Loses his university position after the German annexation of Austria because his earlier departure from Nazi Germany is treated as politically suspect.
1938	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Refugee Physicist	Escape from Austria	Austria	Leaves Austria after the Anschluss and escapes first to Italy before seeking a new academic position elsewhere in Europe.
1938	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Visiting Physicist	Return to Oxford	Oxford, Austria	Returns temporarily to Oxford after fleeing Austria and resumes contact with British academic colleagues.
16 January 1939	Otto Robert Frisch Physicist	Nuclear Fission	Copenhagen, Austria	Confirms uranium fission experimentally with Meitne
January 1939	Niels Bohr Physicist	Fission Theory	Washington, Denmark	Carries news of uranium fission to the United States.
January 1939	Otto Robert Frisch Physicist	Term Nuclear Fission	Copenhagen, Austria	Introduces the term nuclear fission while explaining the splitting of uranium nuclei with Lise Meitner.
11 February 1939	Lise Meitner Physicist	Fission Energy Interpretation	Sweden, Germany	With Otto Frisch, explains uranium fission and estimates the large energy release using mass-energy equivalence.
15 February 1939	J. Robert Oppenheimer Physicist	Massive Neutron Cores	Berkeley, United States of America	With George Volkoff, shows that sufficiently massive neutron cores have no static equilibrium, helping establish the theoretical path toward gravitational collapse.
2 August 1939	Leo Szilard Physicist	Einstein-Szilard Letter	Long Island, Hungary	Drafts a letter warning Roosevelt about uranium weapons.
1 September 1939	J. Robert Oppenheimer Physicist	Continued Gravitational Contraction	Berkeley, United States of America	With Hartland Snyder, models continued stellar collapse and shows a sufficiently massive star can become cut off from communication with distant observers.
1939	Luis Alvarez Physicist	Neutron Magnetic Moment Measurement	Berkeley, United States of America	With Felix Bloch, uses magnetic resonance to measure the neutron magnetic moment.
1939	Felix Bloch Physicist	Neutron Magnetic Resonance	Berkeley, Switzerland	With Luis Alvarez, applies resonance methods to determine the neutron magnetic moment.
1939	Niels Bohr Physicist	Uranium Fission Theory	Princeton, Denmark	With John Wheeler, develops a theoretical account of nuclear fission and isotope-dependent neutron behaviour.
1939	Enrico Fermi Professor	Columbia University Professorship	New York, Italy	Joins Columbia University as professor of physics and continues neutron research soon after arriving in the United States.
1939	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Columbia Uranium Neutron Experiments	New York, Italy	Conducts neutron experiments on uranium at Columbia University while investigating whether a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction could be achieved.
1939	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Fermi Szilard Neutron Experiments	New York, Italy	Works with Leo Szilard and other collaborators on experiments designed to measure neutron production and absorption in uranium and graphite systems.
1939	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Recognition of Chain Reaction Possibility	New York, Italy	Recognizes that uranium fission can release secondary neutrons and therefore may permit a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
1939	Frederic Joliot-Curie Physicist	Nuclear Fission Research	Paris, France	Studies neutron multiplication after the discovery of nuclear fission.
1939	Ernest Orlando Lawrence Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for inventing and developing the cyclotron and for results obtained with artificially produced radioactive elements.
1939	J Robert Oppenheimer Physicist	Gravitational Collapse	Berkeley, United States of America	Oppenheimer analyzes continued gravitational collapse as an implication of general relativity
1939	Carl-Gustaf Rossby Meteorologist and Physicist	Planetary Atmospheric Waves	Washington, Sweden	Provides a foundation for modern weather analysis and forecasting.
1939	Carl-Gustaf Rossby Meteorologist and Physicist	Rossby Waves	Washington, Sweden	Explains large-scale atmospheric waves caused by Earths rotation.
1939	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Ghent Appointment	Ghent, Austria	Takes a temporary academic position at the University of Ghent before moving to Ireland.
1939	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Director	Move to Dublin	Dublin, Austria	Moves to Dublin after receiving an invitation to help establish a new centre for advanced theoretical research in Ireland.
1939	Hartland Snyder Snyder Physicist	Gravitational Collapse	Berkeley, United States of America	Snyder coauthors the relativistic collapse model showing how a massive star can pass within its Schwarzschild radius
1939	Leo Szilard Physicist	Uranium Neutron Multiplication	New York, Hungary	With collaborators at Columbia, measures neutron multiplication from uranium and advances chain-reaction studies.
1939	John Archibald Wheeler Physicist	Fission Theory	Princeton, United States of America	Works with Bohr on the theory of nuclear fission.
1939	John Archibald Wheeler Physicist	Fission Theory with Bohr	Princeton, United States of America	With Niels Bohr, develops a liquid-drop description of fission and neutron-induced uranium reactions.
1939	Eugene Wigner Physicist	Chain Reaction Warning	Princeton, United States of America	Warns of uranium chain-reaction possibilities with Szilard.
15 January 1940	Luis Alvarez Physicist	Quantitative Neutron Moment Publication	Berkeley, United States of America	Publishes a quantitative magnetic-resonance determination of the neutron magnetic moment with Felix Bloch.
15 January 1940	Felix Bloch Physicist	Quantitative Neutron Moment Publication	Berkeley, Switzerland	Publishes the neutron magnetic-moment measurement obtained with Luis Alvarez.
February 1940	Alfred Nier Physicist	Uranium-235 Separation	Minnesota, United States of America	Separates uranium-235 for early fission measurements.
March 1940	John R. Dunning Physicist	Uranium-235 Fission	New York, United States of America	Shows uranium-235 is responsible for slow-neutron fission.
1 October 1940	Albert Einstein Physicist	United States Citizenship	Trenton, United States of America	Becomes a United States citizen while retaining Swiss citizenship.
December 1940	Glenn T. Seaborg Chemist	Plutonium Discovery	Berkeley, United States of America	Produces plutonium from uranium-derived neptunium.
1940	Bibha Chowdhuri Physicist	Cosmic Ray Tracks	Darjeeling, India	Bibha Chowdhuri works with D. M. Bose using photographic plates at high altitude to study charged particles in cosmic rays.
1940	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Wartime Childhood	Belgium, Belgium	Spends part of the German occupation concealed in orphanages to hide his Jewish identity and survive Nazi persecution.
1940	Edwin McMillan Physicist	Neptunium Discovery	Berkeley, United States of America	Finds neptunium during uranium irradiation studies.
1940	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Matriculation	Punjab, Pakistan	Achieves exceptionally high marks in the University of the Punjab matriculation examination while still a teenager.
1940	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Director	School of Theoretical Physics Directorship	Dublin, Austria	Becomes director of the School of Theoretical Physics at the newly established Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
26 February 1941	Glenn Seaborg	Discovery of Plutonium	United States of America	Glenn Seaborg and colleagues conclusively identify plutonium during laboratory work at Berkeley.
26 February 1941	Arthur Wahl	Discovery of Plutonium	United States of America	Arthur Wahl participates in the conclusive identification of plutonium with Glenn Seaborg and colleagues.
15 July 1941	James Chadwick Physicist	MAUD Committee	Liverpool, Great Britain	Supports the MAUD conclusion on uranium weapon feasibility while based at Liverpool.
6 December 1941	Vannevar Bush	Manhattan Project	Washington, United States of America	Vannevar Bush holds a meeting to organize an accelerated research project, managed by Arthur Compton, Harold Urey develops research into gaseous diffusion as uranium enrichment & Ernest Lawrence investigates separation methods
6 December 1941	Ernest Lawrence	Manhattan Project	Washington, United States of America	Vannevar Bush holds a meeting to organize an accelerated research project, managed by Arthur Compton, Harold Urey develops research into gaseous diffusion as uranium enrichment & Ernest Lawrence investigates separation methods
1941	Bibha Chowdhuri Physicist	Meson Measurements	Darjeeling, India	Bibha Chowdhuri and D. M. Bose publish measurements of cosmic-ray particle tracks that provide early evidence for particles of meson-like mass.
1941	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Director	Dublin Theoretical Physics Programme	Dublin, Austria	Develops the research programme of the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies and helps establish it as an international centre for theoretical physics.
May 1942	Robert Oppenheimer	Manhattan Project	United States of America	Oppenheimer is given the title "Coordinator of Rapid Rupture", specifically referring to the propagation of a fast neutron chain reaction in an atomic bomb
27 July 1942	Arthur Holly Compton	Irradiated Uranium Shipment	Chicago, United States of America	The first shipment of irradiated uranium, about 300 pounds, arrives at the Metallurgical Laboratory for plutonium research.
July 1942	Robert Oppenheimer	Manhattan Project	United States of America	Robert Oppenheimer convenes a summer conference at the University of California, Berkeley to discuss the design of a fission bomb, Edward Teller brings up the possibility of a hydrogen bomb as a major point of discussion
July 1942	Edward Teller	Manhattan Project	Hungary	Robert Oppenheimer convenes a summer conference at the University of California, Berkeley to discuss the design of a fission bomb, Edward Teller brings up the possibility of a hydrogen bomb as a major point of discussion
20 August 1942	Glenn Theodore Seaborg	Pure Plutonium Isolation	Chicago, United States of America	Seaborg isolates pure plutonium using a separation method suitable for development on an industrial scale.
13 September 1942	Ernest Orlando Lawrence	Electromagnetic Pilot Plant Recommendation	Berkeley, United States of America	The S-1 Executive Committee recommends a Tennessee pilot plant based on Lawrence's electromagnetic isotope-separation work.
13 September 1942	Robert Oppenheimer	Project Y	United States of America	At a meeting of the S-1 Executive Committee, it is decided that a centralized laboratory should be established to study fast neutrons, code-named "Project Y"
October 1942	J. Robert Oppenheimer Physicist	Los Alamos Laboratory	Los Alamos, United States of America	Is selected to direct bomb-design work at Los Alamos.
3 November 1942	Glenn Theodore Seaborg	Plutonium Neutron Impurity Warning	Chicago, United States of America	Seaborg warns that plutonium's alpha activity can make light-element impurities a serious unwanted neutron source.
2 December 1942	Leo Szilard	First Nuclear Chain Reaction	Chicago, Hungary	A uranium and graphite pile achieves the first self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
1942	—	Uranium Enrichment Methods	Oak Ridge, United States of America	The Manhattan Project commits to parallel development of electromagnetic and gaseous-diffusion methods for large-scale uranium isotope separation.
1942	Hannes Olof Gosta Alfven Plasma Physicist	Alfven Waves	Stockholm, Sweden	Predicts waves travelling through magnetized electrically conducting fluids.
1942	Hannes Olof Gosta Alfven Plasma Physicist	Magnetohydrodynamic Waves	Stockholm, Sweden	Establishes a central phenomenon in plasma physics and space science.
1942	Werner Heisenberg Physicist	Departure from Leipzig	Leipzig, Germany	Leaves Leipzig to become director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin.
1942	Berta Karlik Nuclear Physicist	Element 85 in Nature	Vienna, Austria	Provides evidence that element 85 exists naturally in trace quantities.
1942	Berta Karlik Nuclear Physicist	Natural Astatine Detection	Vienna, Austria	Co-detects naturally occurring astatine in uranium decay products.
1942	Nicholas Kurti	Manhattan Project	Oxford, Great Britain	Simon and Kurti develop gaseous-diffusion methods for separating uranium-235.
1942	Nicholas Kurti	Oxford University	Oxford, Great Britain	Simon and Kurti develop gaseous-diffusion methods for separating uranium-235.
1942	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Director	Unified Field Theory Research	Dublin, Austria	Pursues mathematical approaches to unifying gravitation and electromagnetism while directing theoretical-physics research in Dublin.
1942	Franz Simon	Manhattan Project	Oxford, Great Britain	Simon and Kurti develop gaseous-diffusion methods for separating uranium-235.
1942	Franz Simon	Oxford University	Oxford, Great Britain	Simon and Kurti develop gaseous-diffusion methods for separating uranium-235.
1942	Leona Woods Physicist	Chicago Pile Neutron Detectors	Chicago, United States of America	Builds and monitors neutron detectors used during Chicago Pile-1 experiments.
February 1943	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Lecturer	Aperiodic Crystal Concept	Dublin, Austria	Argues in his What Is Life? lectures that hereditary information could be encoded in an aperiodic molecular structure within living cells.
February 1943	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Lecturer	What Is Life Lectures	Dublin, Austria	Delivers the celebrated What Is Life? lectures at Trinity College Dublin under the auspices of the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
5 April 1943	Robert Serber	Los Alamos Primer Lectures	Los Alamos, United States of America	Serber begins a series of introductory lectures explaining bomb physics and design to the newly arriving Los Alamos scientific staff.
April 1943	Hans Albrecht Bethe	Theoretical Division Leadership	Los Alamos, Germany	Bethe is selected to head the Los Alamos Theoretical Division, which develops calculations needed for fission-weapon design.
April 1943	Seth Henry Neddermeyer	Implosion Research Begins	Los Alamos, United States of America	Neddermeyer begins experimental work on implosion as a method of rapidly compressing a hollow fissile assembly.
24 June 1943	Emilio Gino Segre	Cyclotron Plutonium Fission Rate	Los Alamos, Italy	Using cyclotron-produced plutonium, Segre measures a spontaneous-fission rate low enough to keep the plutonium gun concept viable at this stage.
4 July 1943	Seth Henry Neddermeyer	First Implosion Explosion	Los Alamos, United States of America	Neddermeyer conducts the first explosive experiment in the Los Alamos implosion research programme.
10 July 1943	Robert Oppenheimer	First Los Alamos Nuclear Physics Experiment	Los Alamos, United States of America	Los Alamos begins its first nuclear-physics experiment, measuring plutonium-239 fission-neutron yield and marking the laboratory's transition into active experimental work.
19 August 1943	Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill Prime Minister of Great Britain	Manhattan Project	Great Britain	Roosevelt and Winston Churchill sign Quebec Agreement & a team of British scientists join the Manhattan Project as a result, including Klaus Fuchs
20 September 1943	John von Neumann	Implosion Compression Insight	Los Alamos, Hungary	Von Neumann visits Los Alamos and emphasises the large compression attainable by implosion, strengthening interest in the method.
4 October 1943	Robert Oppenheimer	Manhattan Project	Hanford, United States of America	Construction begins for the first reactor at the Hanford Site
October 1943	Robert Oppenheimer	Manhattan Project	United States of America	Project W-47, later called Project Alberta set up to plan delivery of the bomb
November 1943	Glenn Theodore Seaborg	First Plutonium Metal Sample	Chicago, United States of America	The Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory produces the first sample of plutonium in metallic form by chemically reducing plutonium fluoride.
December 1943	Emilio Gino Segre	Uranium-235 Spontaneous Fission Measurement	Los Alamos, Italy	Segre measures a lower-than-expected spontaneous-fission rate for uranium-235, easing design requirements for the uranium gun weapon.
1943	Mark Oliphant Physicist	Manhattan Project	Birmingham, Great Britain	Moves from Birmingham nuclear research into Allied atomic bomb work.
1943	Julius Robert Oppenheimer	Manhattan Project	Los Alamos, United States of America	Appointed head of the Manhattan Project by Roosevelt to develop the atomic bomb
11 January 1944	Edward Teller	Implosion Theory Group	Los Alamos, Hungary	An implosion theory group is established at Los Alamos with Teller as its first head.
January 1944	—	Y-12 Calutron Operations	Oak Ridge, United States of America	The first Alpha calutron at Y-12 begins operation as electromagnetic isotope separation moves from construction into production.
16 February 1944	George Bogdanovich Kistiakowsky	Implosion Leadership Change	Los Alamos, United States of America	Kistiakowsky becomes a full-time Los Alamos staff member and takes leadership of the rapidly expanding implosion effort from Neddermeyer.
15 April 1944	Emilio Gino Segre	Reactor Plutonium High Fission Rate	Los Alamos, Italy	Measurements of reactor-produced plutonium show a spontaneous-fission rate far above expectations because of plutonium-240 contamination, threatening the gun method.
April 1944	James Leslie Tuck	Explosive Lens Proposal	Los Alamos, Great Britain	Tuck proposes using explosive lenses to shape detonation waves into the spherical convergence required for implosion.
24 May 1944	Geoffrey Ingram Taylor	Implosion Instability Analysis	Los Alamos, Great Britain	Taylor joins Los Alamos and highlights hydrodynamic instability problems that influence the move toward a more conservative implosion design.
May 1944	Enrico Fermi Physicist	LOPO Reactor	Los Alamos, Italy	Helps bring the LOPO reactor at Los Alamos to criticality, demonstrating an aqueous homogeneous reactor fueled with enriched uranium.
June 1944	John von Neumann	Slow Explosive Lens Component	Los Alamos, Hungary	Von Neumann provides an important design insight for the slower explosive component used to focus an implosion lens.
11 July 1944	Enrico Fermi Physicist	United States Citizenship	United States of America	Becomes a naturalized citizen of the United States together with his wife Laura Fermi.
September 1944	Robert Frederick Christy	Solid Core Implosion Design	Los Alamos, Canada	Christy proposes a solid plutonium core compressed to supercritical density, simplifying the implosion concept and reducing instability problems.
8 December 1944	Joseph Rotblat	Manhattan Project Resignation	Los Alamos, Poland	Rotblat leaves the Manhattan Project after concluding that Germany is no longer developing an atomic bomb threat requiring his participation.
December 1944	Robert Fox Bacher	Implosion Initiator Development Begins	Los Alamos, United States of America	Work begins on a precisely timed neutron initiator for the solid-core implosion weapon.
December 1944	Lyle Borst Physicist	Neutron Diffraction Measurements	Oak Ridge, United States of America	Works with Ernest Wollan on early reactor-based neutron diffraction measurements.
December 1944	Ernest Wollan Physicist	First Neutron Powder Diffraction	Oak Ridge, United States of America	Obtains early neutron powder diffraction measurements using the X-10 Graphite Reactor.
1944	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Los Alamos F Division Leadership	Los Alamos, United States of America	Leads a Los Alamos division concerned with advanced theoretical and experimental problems related to neutron physics and weapon development.
1944	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Move to Los Alamos	Los Alamos, United States of America	Moves to Los Alamos and joins the laboratory effort to solve scientific problems associated with designing the first atomic weapons.
1944	Isidor Isaac Rabi	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for the resonance method used to measure magnetic properties of atomic nuclei.
1944	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Author	Negative Entropy Discussion	Dublin, Austria	Explains biological organization using the language of thermodynamics and describes living systems as sustaining order through exchanges with their environment.
1944	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Author	Order from Order Concept	Dublin, Austria	Develops the idea that living organisms maintain ordered structure by exploiting highly organized molecular processes in his book What Is Life?.
1944	Emilio Segre Physicist	Plutonium-240 Spontaneous Fission	Los Alamos, Italy	Finds reactor-produced plutonium has a high spontaneous-fission neutron background because of plutonium-240.
1944	Ernest Wollan Physicist	Neutron Diffraction Proposal	Oak Ridge, United States of America	Proposes using reactor neutrons and a modified diffraction instrument to study crystal structure.
1944	Yevgeny Konstantinovich Zavoisky Physicist	Electron Paramagnetic Resonance	Kazan, Russia	Observes resonant absorption associated with unpaired electron spins in a magnetic field, founding electron paramagnetic resonance.
1944	Walter Zinn Physicist	Chicago Reactor Neutron Diffraction	Chicago, Canada	Observes neutron diffraction using reactor neutrons during early Manhattan Project scattering experiments.
18 January 1945	Otto Robert Frisch	Dragon Prompt Critical Experiment	Los Alamos, Austria	Frisch's Dragon experiment produces the first assembly made prompt critical by neutrons alone, using uranium hydride at Los Alamos.
28 February 1945	Robert Oppenheimer	Final Plutonium Bomb Design Meeting	Los Alamos, United States of America	A senior design meeting fixes the plutonium bomb approach around a solid core, explosive lenses, electric detonators and a modulated neutron initiator.
11 April 1945	George Bogdanovich Kistiakowsky	Optimal Implosion Compression	Los Alamos, United States of America	Kistiakowsky reports that sub-scale tests have achieved the desired symmetrical compression for the implosion system.
12 April 1945	Otto Robert Frisch	Uranium Zero Yield Tests	Los Alamos, Austria	Frisch completes criticality and zero-yield experiments with uranium-235 needed to confirm weapon-core behaviour.
30 April 1945	Hans Albrecht Bethe	Urchin Initiator Selection	Los Alamos, Germany	The Initiator Committee selects the Urchin concept as the most promising neutron initiator for the implosion weapon.
2 May 1945	Luis Walter Alvarez	X-Unit Detonation Testing	Los Alamos, United States of America	A Raytheon Mark II X-Unit arrives for testing as part of the electrical firing system for the implosion bomb.
1 June 1945	Homi Jehangir Bhabha Founder · TIFR	Tata Institute of Fundamental Research	Bombay, India	Homi Bhabha founds the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research to build advanced research in physics and related sciences in India.
11 June 1945	James Franck	Franck Report	Chicago, Germany	Franck's committee issues a report urging international control of atomic energy and recommending a demonstration before combat use.
24 June 1945	Otto Robert Frisch	Implosion Core Criticality Confirmation	Los Alamos, Austria	Frisch confirms through criticality measurements that the planned implosion-core design is satisfactory.
16 July 1945	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Trinity Test Observation	Alamogordo, United States of America	Observes the Trinity nuclear test and performs a simple paper-drop experiment to make an immediate estimate of the explosion's yield.
16 July 1945	Robert Oppenheimer	1st Nuclear Explosion	Alamogordo, United States of America	The first nuclear explosion, the "Trinity" test of an implosion-style plutonium-based nuclear weapon known as "the gadget", near Alamogordo, New Mexico
16 July 1945	Robert Oppenheimer	Manhattan Project	Alamogordo, United States of America	The first nuclear explosion, the "Trinity" test of an implosion-style plutonium-based nuclear weapon known as "the gadget", near Alamogordo, New Mexico
6 August 1945	Luis Alvarez Physicist	Hiroshima Measurement	Hiroshima, United States of America	Measures effects from the uranium bomb mission.
12 August 1945	Henry DeWolf Smyth	Manhattan Project	United States of America	The Smyth Report was the common name given to an administrative history written by physicist Henry DeWolf Smyth about the Allied World War II effort to develop the atomic bomb, the Manhattan Project
12 August 1945	Henry DeWolf Smyth	Smyth Report	United States of America	The Smyth Report was the common name given to an administrative history written by physicist Henry DeWolf Smyth about the Allied World War II effort to develop the atomic bomb, the Manhattan Project
12 August 1945	Harry S Truman President of USA	Smyth Report	United States of America	The Smyth Report is released to the public, giving the first technical history of the development of the first atomic bombs
16 October 1945	Norris Bradbury	Manhattan Project	Los Alamos, United States of America	Oppenheimer resigns as director of Los Alamos, and is succeeded by Norris Bradbury
1945	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Interim Committee Scientific Panel	Washington, United States of America	Serves on the scientific panel advising the Interim Committee on issues concerning the wartime use and postwar implications of atomic energy.
1945	Cecil Frank Powell Physicist	Nuclear Emulsion Research	Bristol, Great Britain	Powell develops particle physics research at the University of Bristol.
1945	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Director	Postwar Dublin Research	Dublin, Austria	Continues leading theoretical research in Dublin after the Second World War while working on quantum foundations and unified-field ideas.
21 May 1946	Louis Alexander Slotin	Los Alamos Criticality Accident	Los Alamos, Canada	Slotin receives a lethal radiation dose when a plutonium-core criticality experiment becomes briefly supercritical.
June 1946	Clifford Shull Physicist	Joins Oak Ridge Neutron Program	Oak Ridge, United States of America	Joins Ernest Wollan at Oak Ridge to develop neutron diffraction into a quantitative research technique.
1946	Albert Einstein Physicist	General Field Theory Draft	Princeton, United States of America	Presents a new draft of field equations for his continuing general field theory program.
1946	Enrico Fermi Professor	Postwar Nuclear Physics Programme	Chicago, United States of America	Establishes an energetic postwar research programme at Chicago spanning nuclear physics, particle physics and theoretical problems.
1946	Enrico Fermi Professor	University of Chicago Professorship	Chicago, United States of America	Accepts a professorship at the University of Chicago's Institute for Nuclear Studies and returns to fundamental research after the war.
1946	Friedrich Hund Physicist	Departure from Leipzig	Leipzig, Germany	Ends his Leipzig period after seventeen years in mathematical and theoretical physics.
1946	Frederic Joliot-Curie Physicist	Atomic Energy Commission	Paris, France	Becomes high commissioner of the French atomic energy authority.
1946	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Masters Degree	Lahore, Pakistan	Completes his MA at Government College in Lahore and wins a scholarship for further study at Cambridge.
1946	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Author	Statistical Thermodynamics Publication	Dublin, Austria	Publishes Statistical Thermodynamics, presenting a concise treatment of entropy, ensembles and the statistical foundations of thermodynamic behaviour.
1947	John Bardeen Physicist	Semiconductor Surface States	Murray Hill, United States of America	Explains how electronic surface states affect semiconductor behaviour, helping guide the Bell Labs transistor experiments.
1947	Hans Bethe Physicist	Lamb Shift Calculation	Schenectady, United States of America	Calculates the radiative correction explaining the measured shift between hydrogen electron energy levels.
1947	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Cosmic Ray Research	Chicago, United States of America	Studies high-energy cosmic-ray interactions and develops theoretical models for how energetic particles produce secondary particles in the atmosphere.
1947	Polykarp Kusch Physicist	Electron Magnetic Moment Anomaly	New York, United States of America	Measures a deviation of the electron magnetic moment from the simplest Dirac prediction, providing another key test for quantum electrodynamics.
1947	Willis Eugene Lamb Physicist	Lamb Shift	New York, United States of America	With Robert Retherford, measures a small shift between hydrogen electron energy levels that becomes a decisive test of quantum electrodynamics.
1947	Herbert Pollock Physicist	Synchrotron Radiation from Electrons	Schenectady, United States of America	Participates in the first observation of visible synchrotron radiation emitted by relativistic electrons circulating in a synchrotron.
1947	Cecil Frank Powell Physicist	Pion Discovery	Bristol, Great Britain	Powell's Bristol group identifies the pion using photographic emulsions.
1947	Robert Retherford Physicist	Lamb Shift Measurement	New York, United States of America	With Willis Lamb, measures the small separation between hydrogen electron levels predicted equal by Dirac theory.
1947	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Director	General Relativity Research	Dublin, Austria	Continues mathematical investigations into general relativity and attempts to formulate unified descriptions of gravitation and electromagnetism.
15 December 1948	Frederic Joliot-Curie Physicist	French Reactor	Fontenay-aux-Roses, France	Leads work culminating in France's first nuclear reactor.
1948	Albert Einstein Physicist	Generalized Theory of Gravitation	Princeton, United States of America	Publishes a generalized theory of gravitation during his continuing search for a unified field theory.
1948	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Particle Acceleration Theory	Chicago, United States of America	Develops ideas explaining how charged particles can gain energy through repeated interactions with moving magnetic fields in astrophysical environments.
1948	Kurt Godel Mathematician	Cosmology	Princeton, United States of America	Godel discovers a rotating universe solution of general relativity with closed timelike curves
1948	Igor Kurchatov Physicist	F-1 Reactor	Moscow, Russia	Soviet reactor work uses uranium for plutonium production.
1948	Leonard Miller Physicist	Free-Neutron Decay Observation	Oak Ridge, United States of America	With Arthur Snell, records the first observation of free-neutron beta decay.
1948	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Director	Field Theory Publications	Dublin, Austria	Publishes further work on field theory as part of his sustained effort to find a unified mathematical framework for fundamental interactions.
1948	Julian Seymour Schwinger Physicist	Electron Anomalous Magnetic Moment	Cambridge Massachusetts, United States of America	Calculates the leading quantum-electrodynamic correction to the electron magnetic moment with striking agreement to experiment.
1948	Arthur Snell Physicist	First Observation of Free-Neutron Decay	Oak Ridge, United States of America	With Leonard Miller, observes free neutrons decaying into a proton and electron.
1948	Sin-Itiro Tomonaga Physicist	Renormalized Quantum Electrodynamics	Tokyo, Japan	Develops a renormalized formulation of quantum electrodynamics for calculating electron-photon interactions.
29 August 1949	Igor Vasilyevich Kurchatov Nuclear Physicist	First Soviet Atomic Test	Semipalatinsk, Russia	Directs the scientific programme producing the first Soviet atomic bomb test.
29 August 1949	Igor Vasilyevich Kurchatov Nuclear Physicist	RDS-1 Test	Semipalatinsk, Russia	The achievement marks rds-1 test as an important Russian scientific milestone.
1949	Freeman John Dyson Physicist	Unified Quantum Electrodynamics	Princeton, Great Britain	Shows the equivalence of major formulations of quantum electrodynamics and systematizes renormalized calculations involving electrons.
1949	Albert Einstein Physicist	Autobiographical Notes	Princeton, United States of America	Publishes Autobiographical Notes, reflecting on the development of his scientific ideas and philosophy.
1949	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Fermi Acceleration Mechanism	Chicago, United States of America	Publishes a theory of stochastic particle acceleration that later becomes known as second-order Fermi acceleration.
1949	Richard Phillips Feynman Physicist	Space-Time Quantum Electrodynamics	Ithaca, United States of America	Publishes a space-time formulation of quantum electrodynamics and diagrammatic methods for calculating electron-photon interactions.
1949	Willard Libby	Discovery of Carbon 14	United States of America	Discovers Carbon 14
1949	Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov Theoretical Physicist	Layer Cake Thermonuclear Design	Moscow, Russia	Develops a layered design concept for an early Soviet thermonuclear device.
1949	Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov Theoretical Physicist	Sloika Concept	Moscow, Russia	The achievement marks sloika concept as an important Russian scientific milestone.
1949	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Cambridge Degree	Cambridge, Pakistan	Completes a BA with first-class honours in both mathematics and physics at St John's College, Cambridge.
1949	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Director	Quantum Foundations Lectures	Dublin, Austria	Continues lecturing and writing on the conceptual foundations of quantum mechanics, emphasizing unresolved questions about measurement and physical reality.
1950	Albert Einstein Physicist	Later Unified Field Review	Princeton, United States of America	Presents and revises his mature attempts to construct a unified classical field theory.
1950	Albert Einstein Physicist	Out of My Later Years	Princeton, United States of America	Publishes a collection of essays on science, society, philosophy and public affairs.
1950	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Pion Nucleon Scattering Research	Chicago, United States of America	Uses the Chicago cyclotron to investigate pion-nucleon interactions and helps establish important experimental results in emerging particle physics.
1950	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Physics Degree	London, Great Britain	Graduates from King's College London with first-class honours in physics.
1950	Alfred Kastler Physicist	Atomic Energy-Level Control	Paris, France	Creates a method enabling precise spectroscopy and later laser development.
1950	Alfred Kastler Physicist	Optical Pumping	Paris, France	Proposes using light to redistribute atoms among quantum energy states.
1950	Rube McCord Physicist	Neutron Lifetime Measurement	Oak Ridge, United States of America	Rube McCord participates in the first experimental measurement of the free-neutron lifetime at Oak Ridge.
1950	Frances Pleasonton Physicist	Neutron Lifetime Measurement	Oak Ridge, United States of America	Helps make the first measurement of the free neutron decay lifetime.
1950	Edward Purcell Physicist	First Neutron EDM Measurement	Oak Ridge, United States of America	With Smith and Ramsey, carries out the first neutron electric-dipole-moment measurement.
1950	Norman Ramsey Physicist	First Neutron EDM Measurement	Oak Ridge, United States of America	With Smith and Purcell, measures a stringent early limit on the neutron electric dipole moment.
1950	Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov Theoretical Physicist	Magnetic Fusion Confinement	Moscow, Russia	The achievement marks magnetic fusion confinement as an important Russian scientific milestone.
1950	Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov Theoretical Physicist	Tokamak Concept	Moscow, Russia	Co-proposes the tokamak approach for confining hot plasma with magnetic fields.
1950	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Smith's Prize	Cambridge, Pakistan	Receives Cambridge University's Smith's Prize for outstanding pre-doctoral work in physics.
1950	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Director	Unified Field Theory Programme	Dublin, Austria	Maintains an active research programme on unified field theory despite the growing dominance of other approaches in postwar theoretical physics.
1950	Dennis William Sciama Physicist	Relativity, Theory of	Cambridge, Great Britain	Sciama promotes Machs principle and gravitational theory questions that shape British relativity research
1950	James H. Smith Physicist	First Neutron EDM Measurement	Oak Ridge, United States of America	With Edward Purcell and Norman Ramsey, performs the first experimental search for a neutron electric dipole moment.
1950	Arthur Snell Physicist	First Neutron Lifetime Measurement	Oak Ridge, United States of America	With Frances Pleasonton and Rube McCord, measures the lifetime of free neutrons.
1951	Albert Einstein Physicist	Unified Field Equations Refinement	Princeton, United States of America	Refines asymmetric-field approaches intended to combine gravitation and electromagnetism.
1951	Enrico Fermi Physicist	High Energy Particle Experiments	Chicago, United States of America	Continues high-energy experiments with mesons and nucleons, combining rapid estimates with detailed measurements to test models of particle interactions.
1951	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Masters Degree	London, Great Britain	Receives an MSc from King's College London and continues research in theoretical physics.
1951	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Doctorate	Cambridge, Pakistan	Completes a doctorate in theoretical physics at Cambridge with research that advances quantum electrodynamics.
1951	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Government College	Lahore, Pakistan	Returns to Pakistan and teaches mathematics at Government College in Lahore.
1951	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Director	Science and Humanism Lectures	Dublin, Austria	Develops lectures connecting scientific knowledge with broader philosophical questions about human understanding, culture and responsibility.
1951	Clifford Shull Physicist	Antiferromagnetic Neutron Diffraction	Oak Ridge, United States of America	Uses neutron diffraction to reveal magnetic ordering in manganese oxide and confirm antiferromagnetism.
1951	Wilbur Strauser Physicist	Manganese Oxide Magnetic Structure	Oak Ridge, United States of America	Works with Shull and Wollan to determine manganese oxide antiferromagnetic structure using neutrons.
1951	Prahalad Chunnilal Vaidya Physicist	Vaidya Metric	Bombay, India	Vaidya publishes an exact solution of Einstein's field equations describing the gravitational field outside a radiating star.
1951	Ernest Wollan Physicist	Manganese Oxide Magnetic Structure	Oak Ridge, United States of America	Uses neutron scattering with Shull and Strauser to reveal antiferromagnetic order in manganese oxide.
18 November 1952	Albert Einstein Physicist	Presidency of Israel Declined	Princeton, United States of America	Declines the offer to become president of Israel, citing lack of aptitude and experience for official duties.
1952	Bertram Brockhouse Physicist	Primitive Triple-Axis Spectrometer	Chalk River, Canada	Sets up an early triple-axis neutron spectrometer at the NRX reactor.
1952	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Fermi Pasta Ulam Work	Los Alamos, United States of America	Collaborates with John Pasta and Stanislaw Ulam on numerical studies of nonlinear coupled oscillators that later become foundational in nonlinear dynamics.
1952	Isidor Isaac Rabi Chairman of AEC	Atomic Energy Commission	Austria	Appointed Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commissions General Advisery Committee
1952	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Author	Science and Humanism Publication	Dublin, Austria	Publishes Science and Humanism, arguing that scientific inquiry should be understood within a wider intellectual and philosophical culture.
12 August 1953	Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov Theoretical Physicist	RDS-6s Test	Semipalatinsk, Russia	Contributes to the design tested as the Soviet Union's first thermonuclear device.
12 August 1953	Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov Member of Soviet Acad of Sci	Soviet Academy of Sciences	Moscow, Russia	Appointed Member of Soviet Academy of Sciences
12 August 1953	Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov Theoretical Physicist	Soviet Thermonuclear Device	Semipalatinsk, Russia	The achievement marks soviet thermonuclear device as an important Russian scientific milestone.
1953	Aage Niels Bohr Nuclear Physicist	Collective Nuclear Model	Copenhagen, Denmark	Co-develops a model combining individual particles with collective nuclear motion.
1953	Aage Niels Bohr Nuclear Physicist	Nuclear Rotation and Vibration	Copenhagen, Denmark	Explains nuclear spectra through rotations and vibrations of deformed nuclei.
1953	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Cornell Career	Ithaca, Belgium	Joins Cornell University after completing his doctorate and develops research interests spanning statistical mechanics and field theory.
1953	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Doctorate	New York City, Belgium	Receives his doctorate in physics from Columbia University.
1953	Enrico Fermi Professor	Final Chicago Research Programme	Chicago, United States of America	Continues teaching and conducting research at the University of Chicago while advising younger physicists on nuclear and particle physics problems.
1953	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Director	Nature and the Greeks Lectures	Dublin, Austria	Examines the origins of scientific thought in ancient Greek philosophy and connects those ideas with modern questions about nature and knowledge.
28 November 1954	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Death of Enrico Fermi	Chicago, United States of America	Enrico Fermi dies in Chicago on 28 November 1954 after a career that transformed quantum statistics, nuclear physics and reactor science.
1954	—	Paducah Cascade Improvement	Paducah, United States of America	Paducah implements a cascade-improvement programme intended to increase the efficiency of gaseous-diffusion enrichment.
1954	Max Born	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Great Britain	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for fundamental research in quantum mechanics, especially the statistical interpretation of the wavefunction.
1954	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Last Scientific Lectures	Chicago, United States of America	Continues lecturing and discussing current problems in physics during the final year of his life despite declining health.
1954	Enrico Fermi Physicist	Legacy in Nuclear and Particle Physics	Chicago, United States of America	Leaves a scientific legacy spanning quantum statistics, beta decay, neutron physics, controlled chain reactions, particle acceleration and high-energy physics.
1954	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Doctorate	London, Great Britain	Receives a PhD from King's College London for research on problems in the theory of molecular vibrations.
1954	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Edinburgh Fellowship	Edinburgh, Great Britain	Moves to the University of Edinburgh as a Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 Senior Student.
1954	Gopalasamudram Narayanan Ramachandran Biophysicist	Collagen Structure	Madras, India	G. N. Ramachandran and collaborators propose a triple-helical structural model for collagen using X-ray diffraction constraints.
1954	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Cambridge Lectureship	Cambridge, Pakistan	Returns to Cambridge as a lecturer in mathematics after finding limited research opportunities in Pakistan.
1954	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Author	Nature and the Greeks Publication	Dublin, Austria	Publishes reflections on ancient Greek natural philosophy and its continuing influence on the conceptual foundations of modern science.
1954	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Copenhagen Study	Copenhagen, United States of America	Begins a year of graduate study at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in Copenhagen and starts research in physics.
1954	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Cornell Degree	Ithaca, United States of America	Receives his undergraduate degree from Cornell University.
January 1955	Bertram Brockhouse Physicist	Triple-Axis Neutron Results	Chalk River, Canada	Presents early triple-axis neutron spectroscopy results after NRX returns to operation.
18 April 1955	Albert Einstein	Death of Albert Einstein	Princeton, United States of America	Albert Einstein dies in Princeton, New Jersey, aged 76.
1955	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Engineering Degree	Brussels, Belgium	Graduates from the Universite Libre de Bruxelles as a civil electrical-mechanical engineer.
1955	Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri Physicist	Raychaudhuri Equation	Calcutta, India	Raychaudhuri derives the focusing equation that later becomes central to the singularity theorems of general relativity.
1955	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Director	Retirement from Dublin Institute	Dublin, Austria	Retires from the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies after directing its School of Theoretical Physics for more than fifteen years.
December 1956	John Bardeen Physicist	Nobel Prize for Transistor Physics	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for semiconductor research and the transistor effect.
December 1956	Walter Houser Brattain Physicist	Nobel Prize for Transistor Physics	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for semiconductor research and discovery of transistor action.
December 1956	William Shockley Physicist	Nobel Prize for Semiconductor Research	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for semiconductor research and discovery of the transistor effect.
1956	Homi Jehangir Bhabha Chairman · Atomic Energy Commission	Apsara Reactor	Trombay, India	Homi Bhabha leads India's atomic energy programme when Apsara, Asia's first research reactor, reaches criticality.
1956	Bertram Brockhouse Physicist	True Triple-Axis Spectrometer	Chalk River, Canada	Completes the first true triple-axis crystal spectrometer for neutron scattering.
1956	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Academic Appointment	Brussels, Belgium	Begins work as an assistant at the Universite Libre de Bruxelles while continuing advanced study in physics.
1956	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	London Research	London, Great Britain	Returns to London and works at University College London and Imperial College before his permanent return to Edinburgh.
1956	Lev Davidovich Landau Physicist	Fermi Liquid Theory of Electrons	Moscow, Russia	Develops the Fermi-liquid description of interacting electrons in metals as long-lived quasiparticles near the Fermi surface.
1956	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Return to Vienna Professorship	Vienna, Austria	Returns to Vienna to take an honoured university position and resume teaching in the city where his scientific career began.
1956	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Lecturer	Vienna Quantum Mechanics Lectures	Vienna, Austria	Resumes university teaching in Vienna and presents lectures on quantum mechanics, statistical physics and the conceptual foundations of modern physics.
January 1957	John Archibald Wheeler Physicist	Quantum Gravity	Chapel Hill, United States of America	Discusses singularities and the need for quantum gravity beyond classical general relativity.
1 October 1957	Edward Purcell Physicist	Neutron EDM Result Published	United States of America, United States of America	Publishes the early neutron EDM limit obtained from magnetic-resonance measurements.
1 October 1957	Norman Ramsey Physicist	Neutron EDM Result Published	United States of America, United States of America	Publishes the first-generation experimental limit on the neutron electric dipole moment.
1 October 1957	James H. Smith Physicist	Neutron EDM Result Published	United States of America, United States of America	Publishes the neutron electric-dipole-moment limit measured with Purcell and Ramsey.
1957	John Bardeen Physicist	BCS Electron Pairing Theory	Urbana, United States of America	With Leon Cooper and Robert Schrieffer, explains superconductivity through correlated pairs of electrons coupled to the crystal lattice.
1957	Leon Cooper Physicist	Cooper Electron Pairing	United States of America, United States of America	Shows that electrons near a Fermi surface can form bound pairs through an attractive lattice-mediated interaction.
1957	Leo Esaki Physicist	Semiconductor Electron Tunnelling	Tokyo, Japan	Demonstrates quantum tunnelling of electrons through a semiconductor junction, leading to the tunnel diode.
1957	Richard Phillips Feynman Physicist	Gravitational Waves	Chapel Hill, United States of America	Feynman gives the sticky bead argument showing gravitational waves can carry energy
1957	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Imperial College	London, Pakistan	Becomes Professor of Theoretical Physics at Imperial College London, establishing a long association with the institution.
1957	Robert Schrieffer Physicist	BCS Electron Pair Wavefunction	Urbana, United States of America	Develops the many-electron wavefunction used in the Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer theory of superconductivity.
1957	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Mind and Matter Lectures	Vienna, Austria	Develops a series of lectures examining the relationship between consciousness, observation and the physical description of nature.
1957	Kai Manne Borje Siegbahn Experimental Physicist	Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis	Uppsala, Sweden	Develops methods for accurately measuring electron energies emitted from matter.
1957	Kai Manne Borje Siegbahn Experimental Physicist	High-Resolution Photoelectron Spectroscopy	Uppsala, Sweden	Creates high-resolution spectroscopy for studying atomic and molecular electronic structure.
1957	Ennackal Chandy George Sudarshan Physicist	V-A Theory	Rochester, India	E. C. G. Sudarshan and Robert Marshak formulate the vector-minus-axial-vector description of weak interactions.
1957	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Columbia Research	New York City, United States of America	Begins postdoctoral research at Columbia University after completing his doctorate.
1957	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Doctorate	Princeton, United States of America	Receives his PhD from Princeton University for work applying renormalization theory to strong-interaction effects in weak processes.
14 August 1958	Frederic Joliot-Curie Physicist	Death of Frederic Joliot-Curie	Paris, France	Dies after a career in nuclear chemistry and physics.
10 December 1958	Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Russia	Shares the Nobel Prize for discovering and interpreting Cherenkov radiation.
10 December 1958	Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov Physicist	Recognition of Cherenkov Radiation	Stockholm, Russia	The achievement marks recognition of cherenkov radiation as an important Russian scientific milestone.
10 December 1958	Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm Theoretical Physicist	Cherenkov Theory Recognition	Stockholm, Russia	The achievement marks cherenkov theory recognition as an important Russian scientific milestone.
10 December 1958	Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm Theoretical Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Russia	Shares the Nobel Prize for the theoretical interpretation of Cherenkov radiation.
1958	Philip Warren Anderson Physicist	Electron Localization in Disorder	Murray Hill, United States of America	Shows that disorder can localize electron wavefunctions and suppress electrical conduction, now called Anderson localization.
1958	Bertram Brockhouse Physicist	Constant-Q Neutron Spectroscopy	Chalk River, Canada	Develops the constant-Q method for measuring excitations with neutron spectroscopy.
1958	Pavel Cherenkov	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Russia	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering and interpreting the Cherenkov effect.
1958	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Physics Degree	Brussels, Belgium	Completes a degree in physical sciences at the Universite Libre de Bruxelles.
1958	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Author	Mind and Matter Publication	Vienna, Austria	Publishes Mind and Matter, exploring philosophical questions about consciousness and its relationship to the physical world.
1958	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Author	My View of the World Essays	Vienna, Austria	Brings together philosophical reflections on science, mind and reality that later appear in collections associated with his personal worldview.
1959	Yakir Aharonov Physicist	Aharonov-Bohm Electron Phase Effect	Bristol, Israel	With David Bohm, predicts that electron interference can depend on electromagnetic potentials even where the electrons traverse no magnetic field.
1959	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Englert Collaboration	Ithaca, Belgium	Begins working closely with Francois Englert when Englert arrives at Cornell as a research associate.
1959	Owen Chamberlain	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the antiproton.
1959	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Cornell Research	Ithaca, Belgium	Moves to Cornell University as a research associate and begins a close scientific collaboration with Robert Brout.
1959	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Doctorate	Brussels, Belgium	Receives a doctorate in physical sciences from the Universite Libre de Bruxelles.
1959	Robert Pound Physicist	Gravitational Redshift	Harvard University, United States of America	Measures gravitational redshift with Glen Rebka using the Mossbauer effect.
1959	Robert Vivian Pound Physicist	Gravitational Redshift	Harvard University, United States of America	Pound measures gravitational redshift on Earth and tests a key prediction of general relativity
1959	Glen Rebka Physicist	Pound-Rebka Experiment	Harvard University, United States of America	Confirms gravitational redshift in a laboratory test of general relativity.
1959	Glen Anderson Rebka Physicist	Gravitational Redshift	Harvard University, United States of America	Rebka works with Pound on the laboratory detection of gravitational redshift
1959	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Royal Society	London, Pakistan	Is elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, becoming the first Fellow elected from Pakistan.
1959	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Professor	Late Quantum Foundations Work	Vienna, Austria	Continues writing and lecturing on quantum theory and philosophy during the final years of his academic life.
1959	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Berkeley Research	Berkeley, United States of America	Moves to Berkeley and conducts research across high-energy physics, weak currents, broken symmetries and scattering theory.
1960	Homi Jehangir Bhabha Chairman · Atomic Energy Commission	CIRUS Reactor	Trombay, India	Under Homi Bhabha's leadership, the CIRUS research reactor becomes operational at Trombay and expands India's nuclear research capacity.
1960	Robert G Chambers Physicist	Electron Interference Test of Magnetic Flux	Bristol, Great Britain	Uses electron interference around a magnetic whisker to obtain early experimental evidence for the Aharonov-Bohm phase effect.
1960	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Cornell Appointment	Ithaca, Belgium	Becomes an assistant professor at Cornell University after his initial research-associate appointment.
1960	Ivar Giaever Physicist	Superconducting Electron Tunnelling	Schenectady, Norway	Measures electron tunnelling through an insulating barrier into a superconductor and reveals the superconducting energy gap.
1960	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Edinburgh Lectureship	Edinburgh, Great Britain	Takes up a lectureship in mathematical physics at the Tait Institute of Mathematical Physics, University of Edinburgh.
1960	Martin Kruskal Physicist	Kruskal Extension	United States of America	Publishes the maximal analytic extension of the Schwarzschild geometry, showing that the event horizon is a regular spacetime surface rather than a physical singularity.
1960	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	International Physics Centre Proposal	Vienna, Pakistan	Proposes an international theoretical physics institute that would support scientists from developing countries.
1960	Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrodinger Physicist	Final Scientific Writings	Vienna, Austria	Completes some of his final scientific and philosophical writings while living in Vienna during a period of declining health.
1960	Joseph Weber Physicist	Gravitational Waves	University of Maryland, United States of America	Weber begins building resonant bar detectors to search directly for gravitational waves
1960	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Berkeley Faculty	Berkeley, United States of America	Joins the University of California, Berkeley faculty as an assistant professor.
1961	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Move to Belgium	Brussels, Belgium	Leaves Cornell and moves to Belgium to continue his collaboration with Francois Englert at the Universite Libre de Bruxelles.
1961	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	ULB Professorship	Brussels, Belgium	Joins the Universite Libre de Bruxelles as a professor and makes Brussels the base of his subsequent scientific career.
1961	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Return to Brussels	Brussels, Belgium	Returns to the Universite Libre de Bruxelles as a lecturer, continuing his collaboration with Robert Brout.
1961	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Scientific Adviser	Pakistan, Pakistan	Begins serving as Chief Scientific Adviser to the President of Pakistan while remaining active in theoretical physics.
10 December 1962	Lev Davidovich Landau Theoretical Physicist	Condensed Matter Theory	Stockholm, Russia	The achievement marks condensed matter theory as an important Russian scientific milestone.
10 December 1962	Lev Davidovich Landau Theoretical Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Russia	Receives the Nobel Prize for pioneering theories of condensed matter.
1962	Brian David Josephson Physicist	Cooper-Pair Tunnelling Prediction	Cambridge, Great Britain	Predicts that paired electrons can tunnel coherently between superconductors, producing the Josephson effects.
1962	Ennackal Chandy George Sudarshan Physicist	Faster-than-light Particles	United States, India	E. C. G. Sudarshan and collaborators publish a theoretical analysis showing how hypothetical faster-than-light particles can fit within special relativity.
1963	John Battiscombe Gunn Physicist	Transferred-Electron Effect	Harlow, Great Britain	Discovers spontaneous high-frequency oscillations in gallium arsenide caused by changes in electron transport, the Gunn effect.
1963	Roy Kerr Mathematician	Kerr Metric	Austin, New Zealand	Finds the rotating black hole solution to Einstein's field equations.
1963	Gopalasamudram Narayanan Ramachandran Biophysicist	Ramachandran Plot	Madras, India	G. N. Ramachandran and colleagues introduce conformational maps showing sterically allowed backbone angles in protein structures.
1963	Ennackal Chandy George Sudarshan Physicist	Optical Equivalence Theorem	Rochester, India	E. C. G. Sudarshan develops the diagonal coherent-state representation and optical equivalence theorem foundational to quantum optics.
1963	Eugene Paul Wigner	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for contributions to nuclear and particle theory, especially symmetry principles.
31 August 1964	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Brussels, Belgium	Coauthors with Francois Englert the Physical Review Letters paper Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons.
31 August 1964	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Physical Review Letters	Brussels, Belgium	Publishes with Francois Englert the paper Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons in Physical Review Letters.
31 August 1964	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Brussels, Belgium	Publishes with Robert Brout the first 1964 gauge-symmetry paper establishing a mechanism by which gauge vector bosons can acquire mass.
19 October 1964	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Edinburgh, Great Britain	Publishes Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons, explicitly identifying the massive scalar excitation later called the Higgs boson.
19 October 1964	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Edinburgh, Great Britain	Shows that spontaneous symmetry breaking in a gauge theory can avoid an unwanted massless particle while leaving a massive scalar particle in the theory.
16 November 1964	Gerald Guralnik Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	London, Great Britain	Coauthors a third independent 1964 paper explaining spontaneous symmetry breaking in relativistic gauge theory and the generation of gauge-boson masses.
16 November 1964	Carl Richard Hagen Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	London, Great Britain	Publishes with Gerald Guralnik and Tom Kibble an independent formulation of the gauge-symmetry-breaking mechanism.
16 November 1964	Tom Kibble Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	London, Great Britain	Coauthors Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles, completing one of the independent 1964 formulations associated with the Higgs mechanism.
10 December 1964	Nikolay Gennadiyevich Basov Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Russia	Shares the Nobel Prize for fundamental work in quantum electronics.
10 December 1964	Nikolay Gennadiyevich Basov Physicist	Quantum Electronics	Stockholm, Russia	The achievement marks quantum electronics as an important Russian scientific milestone.
10 December 1964	Alexander Mikhailovich Prokhorov Physicist	Maser and Laser Research	Stockholm, Russia	The achievement marks maser and laser research as an important Russian scientific milestone.
10 December 1964	Alexander Mikhailovich Prokhorov Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Russia	Shares the Nobel Prize for research leading to masers and lasers.
1964	Nikolai Gennadevich Basov	Nobel Prize	Russia	Winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics, for research in lasers
1964	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Gauge Symmetry	Brussels, Belgium	Develops with Francois Englert a mechanism in which spontaneous symmetry breaking gives mass to gauge vector particles without abandoning local gauge symmetry.
1964	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Mass Generation	Brussels, Belgium	Shows with Francois Englert that gauge fields can absorb degrees of freedom from a scalar field and thereby become massive.
1964	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Professorship	Brussels, Belgium	Becomes a professor at the Universite Libre de Bruxelles in the year of his landmark symmetry-breaking work.
1964	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Scalar Boson Prediction	Edinburgh, Great Britain	Develops the consequence that the symmetry-breaking mechanism should leave a massive scalar particle that could in principle be detected experimentally.
1964	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Symmetry Breaking Paper	Edinburgh, Great Britain	Publishes a short paper on broken symmetries that identifies a loophole allowing gauge theories to evade the usual massless-particle conclusion.
1964	Walter Kohn Physicist	Density Functional Theory for Electrons	San Diego, United States of America	With Pierre Hohenberg, establishes that the ground-state properties of interacting electrons are determined by the electron density.
1964	Jayant Vishnu Narlikar Astrophysicist	Hoyle-Narlikar Gravity	Cambridge, India	Jayant Narlikar and Fred Hoyle publish a new Machian theory of gravitation based on direct particle interactions.
1964	Alexander Prokhorov	Invention of Maser	Moscow, Russia	Winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics, created the maser, a microwave laser
1964	Alexander Prokhorov	Nobel Prize	Moscow, Russia	Winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics, created the maser, a microwave laser
1964	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist · ICTP Director	ICTP Director	Trieste, Pakistan	Becomes the founding director of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics when the centre opens in Trieste.
1964	Irwin Ira Shapiro Physicist	Shapiro Time Delay	Cambridge Massachusetts, United States of America	Predicts a measurable relativistic delay in planetary radar signals.
1964	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Berkeley Professorship	Berkeley, United States of America	Becomes a full professor at the University of California, Berkeley.
December 1965	Richard Phillips Feynman Physicist	Nobel Prize for Quantum Electrodynamics	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics.
December 1965	Julian Seymour Schwinger Physicist	Nobel Prize for Quantum Electrodynamics	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics.
December 1965	Sin-Itiro Tomonaga Physicist	Nobel Prize for Quantum Electrodynamics	Stockholm, Japan	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics.
1965	—	Paducah Commercial Enrichment	Paducah, United States of America	Paducah shifts increasingly toward producing enriched uranium for commercial nuclear-power reactor fuel.
1965	Richard Phillips Feynman	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics.
1965	Walter Kohn Physicist	Kohn-Sham Electron Equations	San Diego, United States of America	With Lu Jeu Sham, formulates practical one-electron equations that make density functional calculations usable for atoms, molecules and solids.
1965	Ezra Newman Physicist	Kerr-Newman Metric	United States of America	With collaborators, obtains the rotating electrically charged black hole solution now called the Kerr-Newman metric.
1965	Roger Penrose Mathematician	Singularity Theorem	London, Great Britain	Penrose proves a singularity theorem showing that gravitational collapse generically leads to spacetime singularities
1965	Roger Penrose Mathematician	Singularity Theorem	London, Great Britain	Proves a singularity theorem showing gravitational collapse can produce spacetime singularities.
1965	Julian Schwinger	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics.
1965	Lu Jeu Sham Physicist	Kohn-Sham Electron Equations	San Diego, United States of America	With Walter Kohn, formulates one-electron equations that make density functional calculations practical.
1965	Sin-Itiro Tomonaga	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Japan	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics.
20 November 1967	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	A Model of Leptons	Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America	Publishes A Model of Leptons, giving a compact electroweak gauge theory with spontaneous symmetry breaking and a scalar field.
20 November 1967	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America	Uses spontaneous symmetry breaking in A Model of Leptons to construct a unified electroweak theory incorporating a Higgs-type scalar field.
3 December 1967	Christian Barnard Dr	1st Heart Transplant	Cape Town, South Africa	Performs the 1st heart transplant in Cape Town, his patient lives for 18 days
1967	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Full Professorship	Brussels, Belgium	Holds the rank of ordinary professor at the Universite Libre de Bruxelles.
1967	Werner Israel Physicist	Static Black Hole Uniqueness	Canada	Proves a major uniqueness result showing that static vacuum black holes are described by the Schwarzschild solution under suitable assumptions.
1967	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Weak Mixing	Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America	Relates electromagnetic and weak interactions through a common gauge framework whose parameters include the weak mixing angle.
2 January 1968	Christian Barnard Dr	1st Heart Transplant	Cape Town, South Africa	Gives a Cape Town dentist a heart that lasts for 19 months
1968	Brandon Carter Physicist	Carter Constant	Australia	Shows that particle motion in Kerr spacetime is separable and identifies the additional conserved quantity now called the Carter constant.
1968	Jerome Isaac Friedman Physicist	Deep-Inelastic Electron Scattering	Stanford, United States of America	Uses high-energy electrons to probe protons, revealing point-like constituents inside nucleons.
1968	Henry Kendall Physicist	Deep-Inelastic Electron Scattering	Stanford, United States of America	Uses high-energy electrons to reveal point-like constituents inside protons and neutrons.
1968	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Electroweak Theory	London, Pakistan	Formulates the electroweak gauge theory independently along lines closely related to Steven Weinberg's model, using spontaneous symmetry breaking to generate weak-boson masses.
1968	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	London, Pakistan	Presents an electroweak gauge theory in which spontaneous symmetry breaking supplies masses to weak force carriers while preserving the underlying gauge structure.
1968	Richard Taylor Physicist	Deep-Inelastic Electron Scattering	Stanford, Canada	Leads precision electron-scattering measurements that reveal point-like structure within nucleons.
1969	Georgy Nikolaevich Flerov Physicist	Element 104 Synthesis	Dubna, Russia	Leads work at Dubna reporting production of element 104, one of the first transactinide elements beyond the actinide series.
1969	Roger Penrose Mathematician	Cosmic Censorship	London, Great Britain	Penrose proposes cosmic censorship to explain why singularities may be hidden inside black holes
1969	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	MIT Appointment	Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America	Joins the Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty and continues research in particle theory.
10 December 1970	Hannes Olof Gosta Alfven Plasma Physicist	Magnetohydrodynamics Recognition	Stockholm, Sweden	Is recognized for discoveries concerning plasma and magnetic-field interactions.
10 December 1970	Hannes Olof Gosta Alfven Plasma Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Sweden	Shares the physics prize for foundational work in magnetohydrodynamics.
1970	Hannes Alfven	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Sweden	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for fundamental work and discoveries in magnetohydrodynamics and plasma physics.
1970	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Reader	Edinburgh, Great Britain	Is promoted to Reader in Mathematical Physics at the University of Edinburgh.
1970	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Swedish Academy	Stockholm, Pakistan	Is elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
1971	Gerardus 't Hooft Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Utrecht, Netherlands	Demonstrates the renormalizability of spontaneously broken gauge theories, helping establish the mathematical consistency needed for the electroweak Higgs mechanism.
1971	Dennis Gabor	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Great Britain	Winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics, for work on holography
1971	Gopalasamudram Narayanan Ramachandran Biophysicist	Tomographic Reconstruction	Bangalore, India	G. N. Ramachandran and A. V. Lakshminarayanan publish a convolution-based method for reconstructing three-dimensional structures from projection data.
1971	Robert V Wagoner Physicist	Relativity, Theory of	Stanford University, United States of America	Wagoner develops post Newtonian calculations used to test general relativity with solar system observations
1971	Yakov Zeldovich Physicist	Black Hole Superradiance	Russia	Shows that waves scattered from a rotating absorbing body can be amplified, a mechanism closely connected with superradiance from rotating black holes.
December 1972	John Bardeen Physicist	Second Nobel Prize for Superconductivity	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for the microscopic BCS theory of superconductivity.
December 1972	Leon Cooper Physicist	Nobel Prize for Superconductivity	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for the BCS theory based on paired electrons.
December 1972	Robert Schrieffer Physicist	Nobel Prize for Superconductivity	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for the BCS theory of superconductivity.
1972	Saul Arno Teukolsky Physicist	Teukolsky Equation	California Institute of Technology, United States of America	Teukolsky derives separable equations for electromagnetic and gravitational perturbations of rotating Kerr black holes.
December 1973	Leo Esaki Physicist	Nobel Prize for Electron Tunnelling	Stockholm, Japan	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for experimental discoveries concerning tunnelling in semiconductors.
December 1973	Ivar Giaever Physicist	Nobel Prize for Superconducting Tunnelling	Stockholm, Norway	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for experimental discoveries concerning tunnelling in superconductors.
December 1973	Brian David Josephson Physicist	Nobel Prize for Josephson Effects	Stockholm, Great Britain	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical predictions of coherent electron-pair tunnelling.
1973	James Bardeen Physicist	Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics	United States of America	With Brandon Carter and Stephen Hawking, formulates the four laws of black hole mechanics and their analogy with thermodynamics.
1973	Brandon Carter Physicist	Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics	Australia	With James Bardeen and Stephen Hawking, formulates the four laws of black hole mechanics and their analogy with thermodynamics.
1973	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Trieste, Pakistan	Sees the discovery of weak neutral currents provide major experimental support for the electroweak framework in which the Higgs mechanism operates.
1973	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Neutral Currents	Geneva, Pakistan	Sees experimental observation of weak neutral currents provide a key confirmation of the electroweak theory.
1973	Alexander Starobinsky Physicist	Rotating Black Hole Amplification	Russia	Calculates amplification of waves by rotating black holes, developing the theory of black hole superradiance.
1973	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Harvard Professorship	Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America	Becomes Higgins Professor of Physics at Harvard University.
1973	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America	Sees neutral-current observations strengthen the electroweak theory that he had formulated using spontaneous symmetry breaking.
1973	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Neutral Current Confirmation	Geneva, United States of America	Sees weak neutral-current observations provide decisive experimental support for the electroweak theory.
11 January 1974	Helmut Rauch Physicist	First Neutron Interferometry Signal	Vienna, Austria	Leads the team that observes the first neutron interference signal using a perfect-crystal interferometer.
11 January 1974	Wolfgang Treimer Physicist	First Neutron Interferometry Signal	Vienna, Germany	Participates in the first successful observation of neutron interference with a crystal interferometer.
18 May 1974	Raja Ramanna Director · BARC	Pokhran-I	Pokhran, India	Raja Ramanna plays a leading scientific role in India's first underground nuclear test at Pokhran.
November 1974	Samuel Ting Physicist	J-Psi Discovery	Brookhaven, United States of America	Leads the team that discovers the J/psi particle using high-energy particle interactions.
1974	Ulrich Bonse Physicist	Neutron Interferometer Development	Vienna, Germany	Contributes perfect-crystal interferometry expertise to the first successful neutron interferometer experiment.
1974	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Royal Society of Edinburgh	Edinburgh, Great Britain	Is elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
1974	Jayant Vishnu Narlikar Astrophysicist	Mini-bangs	India, India	Jayant Narlikar develops the idea of localized matter-creation events, later described as mini-bangs within alternative cosmological models.
1974	Yuri Oganessian Physicist	Element 106 Synthesis	Dubna, Russia	Participates in experiments reporting production of element 106, further extending the periodic table into the heavy transactinide elements.
1974	Burton Richter Physicist	Electron-Positron J-Psi Discovery	Stanford, United States of America	Leads the SPEAR electron-positron collider team that discovers the J-psi particle, demonstrating the power of lepton colliders for particle physics.
1974	Andrei Sakharov	Exile of Andrei Sakharov	Gorky, Russia	Sentenced to internal exile
10 December 1975	Aage Niels Bohr Nuclear Physicist	Collective Nuclear Motion Recognition	Stockholm, Denmark	Receives recognition for connecting nuclear structure with collective behavior.
10 December 1975	Aage Niels Bohr Nuclear Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Denmark	Shares the physics prize for describing collective motion in atomic nuclei.
1975	—	Gas Centrifuge Development	Oak Ridge, United States of America	A United States centrifuge uranium-separation programme begins at Oak Ridge as engineers investigate alternatives to gaseous diffusion.
15 January 1976	Stephen William Hawking Physicist	Black Holes and Thermodynamics	Great Britain	Explores the thermodynamic interpretation of black holes and the relationship between horizon area, entropy and temperature.
15 January 1976	Don Page Physicist	Black Hole Particle Emission	Canada	Calculates emission rates for massless particles from an uncharged, nonrotating black hole using Hawking radiation and black hole perturbation theory.
15 May 1976	Paul Davies Physicist	Evaporating Black Hole Stress Tensor	Great Britain	With Stephen Fulling and William Unruh, calculates the quantum stress-energy tensor in a collapse model supporting the standard picture of black hole evaporation.
15 May 1976	Stephen Fulling Physicist	Evaporating Black Hole Stress Tensor	United States of America	With Paul Davies and William Unruh, calculates the quantum stress-energy tensor near an evaporating black hole.
15 August 1976	William Unruh Physicist	Notes on Black-Hole Evaporation	Canada	Analyzes black hole evaporation and shows the close relation between particle detection by accelerated observers and quantum effects near event horizons.
15 December 1976	Don Page Physicist	Rotating Black Hole Emission	Canada	Extends Hawking-radiation calculations to rotating black holes and studies how evaporation removes angular momentum.
15 December 1976	William Unruh Physicist	Small Black Hole Absorption	Canada	Calculates low-frequency absorption cross sections for small black holes, clarifying how scalar and spinor waves interact with the horizon.
December 1976	Burton Richter Physicist	Nobel Prize for J-Psi Discovery	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovery of the J/psi using electron-positron collisions.
December 1976	Samuel Ting Physicist	Nobel Prize for J-Psi Discovery	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovery of a new kind of heavy elementary particle.
1976	Stephen William Hawking Physicist	Breakdown of Predictability	Great Britain	Argues that black hole evaporation creates a fundamental challenge for predictability and quantum information conservation.
1976	William George Unruh Physicist	Relativity, Theory of	Vancouver, Great Britain	Unruh predicts that accelerated observers detect thermal radiation, connecting quantum theory and relativity
15 October 1977	Don Page Physicist	Charged Lepton Emission	Canada	Calculates Hawking emission of electrons and muons from a nonrotating black hole and analyzes fluctuations in the hole's electric charge.
1977	Nikolai Gennadevich Basov	Medal	Russia	Awarded the Volta Gold Medal
1977	Gary Gibbons Physicist	Black Hole Euclidean Action	Great Britain	With Stephen Hawking, develops Euclidean gravitational methods that connect black hole action, temperature and thermodynamic partition functions.
10 December 1978	Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa Physicist	Low-Temperature Physics	Stockholm, Russia	The achievement marks low-temperature physics as an important Russian scientific milestone.
10 December 1978	Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Russia	Receives the Nobel Prize for discoveries in low-temperature physics.
1978	Horst Ludwig Stormer Physicist	High-Mobility Two-Dimensional Electron Gas	Murray Hill, Germany	Helps develop modulation-doped semiconductor structures with exceptionally mobile electrons confined to two dimensions.
10 December 1979	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist · Nobel Laureate	Higgs Boson	Stockholm, Pakistan	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for electroweak unification, the theory whose massive weak bosons depend on spontaneous gauge-symmetry breaking.
10 December 1979	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist · Nobel Laureate	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Pakistan	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics with Sheldon Glashow and Steven Weinberg for contributions to unified weak and electromagnetic interactions.
10 December 1979	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist · Nobel Laureate	Higgs Boson	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for the electroweak theory, which incorporates the symmetry-breaking mechanism later tested through Higgs-boson measurements.
10 December 1979	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist · Nobel Laureate	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics with Sheldon Glashow and Abdus Salam for contributions to electroweak unification.
1980	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Theoretical Physics Group	Brussels, Belgium	Co-founds and co-directs the theoretical physics group at the Universite Libre de Bruxelles with Francois Englert.
1980	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Theoretical Physics Group	Brussels, Belgium	Begins co-directing the theoretical physics group at the Universite Libre de Bruxelles with Robert Brout.
1980	Alan Harvey Guth Physicist	Inflation	Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, United States of America	Guth proposes inflation, using relativistic field theory to address early universe problems
1980	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Personal Chair	Edinburgh, Great Britain	Is promoted to a Personal Chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Edinburgh.
1980	Andrei Sakharov	Arrest of Andrei Sakharov	Russia	Sakharov is arrested
1980	Klaus von Klitzing Physicist	Integer Quantum Hall Effect	Grenoble, Germany	Discovers precisely quantized Hall resistance in a two-dimensional electron system at low temperature and high magnetic field.
10 December 1981	Kai Manne Borje Siegbahn Experimental Physicist	Electron Spectroscopy Recognition	Stockholm, Sweden	Receives recognition for methods revealing atomic and molecular energy levels.
10 December 1981	Kai Manne Borje Siegbahn Experimental Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Sweden	Shares the physics prize for high-resolution electron spectroscopy.
1981	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Hughes Medal	London, Great Britain	Shares the Royal Society Hughes Medal with Tom Kibble for contributions to theoretical physics.
1981	Andrei Dmitriyevich Linde Physicist	Inflation	Moscow, Russia	Linde develops new inflation as a relativistic early universe model
12 May 1982	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Francqui Prize	Brussels, Belgium	Receives the Francqui Prize for major contributions including spontaneous symmetry breaking, quantum field theory, statistical physics, relativity and cosmology.
1982	Alain Aspect Physicist	Bell Inequality Experiment	Orsay, France	Performs experiments testing Bell inequalities with entangled photons.
1982	Alain Aspect Physicist	Quantum Entanglement Test	Orsay, France	Finds correlations incompatible with local hidden-variable theories.
1982	Alexei Alexandrovich Starobinsky Physicist	Inflation	Moscow, Russia	Starobinsky develops an inflationary model from corrections to general relativity
1982	Horst Ludwig Stormer Physicist	Fractional Quantum Hall Effect	Murray Hill, Germany	With Daniel Tsui, discovers the fractional quantum Hall effect in a two-dimensional electron system.
1982	Daniel Tsui Physicist	Fractional Quantum Hall Effect	Murray Hill, United States of America	With Horst Stormer, discovers fractional quantization in a two-dimensional electron gas.
1982	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	University of Texas	Austin, United States of America	Joins the University of Texas at Austin as Jack S. Josey-Welch Foundation Chair in Science and builds a prominent theory group.
1983	Stephen William Hawking Physicist	Hawking-Page Transition	Great Britain	With Don Page, identifies a phase transition between thermal anti-de Sitter space and a stable large black hole.
1983	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Royal Society	London, Great Britain	Is elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in recognition of his contributions to theoretical physics.
1983	Robert Betts Laughlin Physicist	Fractional Quantum Hall Theory	Livermore, United States of America	Explains fractional quantum Hall states as a strongly correlated many-electron quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations.
1983	Don Page Physicist	Hawking-Page Transition	Canada	With Stephen Hawking, identifies the thermodynamic phase transition now called the Hawking-Page transition in anti-de Sitter space.
1983	Carlo Rubbia Experimental Physicist	Higgs Boson	Geneva, Italy	Leads the UA1 collaboration as CERN experiments discover the W and Z bosons whose masses are explained within electroweak theory by the Higgs mechanism.
1983	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Third World Academy	Trieste, Pakistan	Becomes a founding member of the Third World Academy of Sciences, furthering his effort to strengthen science in developing countries.
20 May 1984	Andrei Sakharov	Exile of Andrei Sakharov	Moscow, Russia	Passes papers to US diplomats which request his wife be given asylum in the US embassy
21 June 1984	Andrei Sakharov	Arrest of Andrei Sakharov	Russia	Chernenko & Mitterand clash over human rights during the discussion of Sakharov
21 June 1984	Andrei Sakharov	Chernenko & Mitterand clash over human rights during the discussion of Sakharov	Russia	Chernenko & Mitterand clash over human rights during the discussion of Sakharov
21 June 1984	Andrei Sakharov	Politics	Russia	Chernenko & Mitterand clash over human rights during the discussion of Sakharov
10 December 1984	Simon van der Meer	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Netherlands	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for decisive contributions enabling discovery of the W and Z particles.
10 December 1984	Carlo Rubbia	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Italy	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discoveries leading to the W and Z particles, carriers of the weak interaction.
1984	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Rutherford Medal	Great Britain, Great Britain	Shares the Institute of Physics Rutherford Medal with Tom Kibble.
1984	Andrei Sakharov	Arrest of Andrei Sakharov	Russia	Threatens to go on hunger strike
December 1985	Klaus von Klitzing Physicist	Nobel Prize for Quantum Hall Effect	Stockholm, Germany	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovery of the quantized Hall effect.
1985	—	Gas Centrifuge Programme	Oak Ridge, United States of America	The Oak Ridge centrifuge uranium-separation programme is terminated after a decade of development work.
1985	Gerard 't Hooft Physicist	Brick Wall Model	Netherlands	Introduces the brick wall model for calculating black hole entropy from quantum fields near an event horizon.
December 1986	Gerd Binnig Physicist	Nobel Prize for Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy	Stockholm, Germany	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for design of the scanning tunnelling microscope.
December 1986	Heinrich Rohrer Physicist	Nobel Prize for Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy	Stockholm, Switzerland	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for design of the scanning tunnelling microscope.
December 1986	Ernst August Friedrich Ruska Physicist	Nobel Prize for Electron Optics	Stockholm, Germany	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for fundamental work in electron optics and the electron microscope.
1986	Akira Tonomura Physicist	Shielded Aharonov-Bohm Electron Experiment	Tokyo, Japan	Uses electron holography with shielded magnetic flux to demonstrate the Aharonov-Bohm phase shift without electrons entering the magnetic field.
1986	Clifford Martin Will Physicist	Relativity, Theory of	Washington University, United States of America	Will synthesizes experimental tests of general relativity and parameterized post Newtonian theory
1987	Anne LHuillier Physicist	Attosecond Light Foundations	Saclay, France	Establishes a foundation for generating attosecond light pulses.
1987	Anne LHuillier Physicist	High-Harmonic Generation Plateau	Saclay, France	Observes unexpectedly high harmonics produced by intense laser pulses in gas.
1988	Albert Fert Physicist	Giant Magnetoresistance Electron Spin Transport	Orsay, France	Co-discovers giant magnetoresistance, showing that electrical resistance can depend strongly on electron spin in magnetic multilayers.
1988	Peter Grunberg Physicist	Giant Magnetoresistance Discovery	Julich, Germany	Independently discovers giant magnetoresistance in magnetic multilayers, demonstrating strong spin-dependent electron transport.
1988	Jayant Vishnu Narlikar Founder · IUCAA	IUCAA	Pune, India	Jayant Narlikar becomes founding director of IUCAA, creating a national centre to strengthen university research in astronomy and astrophysics.
1989	Hans Dehmelt	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for developing the ion trap technique used in high-precision spectroscopy.
1989	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees CERN's LEP collider begin precision tests of electroweak theory and searches that increasingly constrain the possible mass of the Higgs boson.
1989	Norman Ramsey	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for the separated oscillatory fields method and its use in atomic precision measurements.
1989	Joseph Hooton Taylor Physicist	Binary Pulsar	Princeton, United States of America	Taylor reports precise orbital decay measurements matching general relativitys gravitational wave prediction
1991	—	Portsmouth Low-Enriched Uranium	Piketon, United States of America	Portsmouth enters its final operating decade producing only low-enriched uranium for commercial nuclear-power use.
1992	Maximo Banados Physicist	BTZ Black Hole	Chile	With Claudio Teitelboim and Jorge Zanelli, discovers the rotating black hole solution in three-dimensional anti-de Sitter gravity known as the BTZ black hole.
1992	Claudio Teitelboim Physicist	BTZ Black Hole	Chile	With Maximo Banados and Jorge Zanelli, discovers the three-dimensional anti-de Sitter black hole now known as the BTZ black hole.
1992	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Dreams of a Final Theory	United States of America, United States of America	Publishes Dreams of a Final Theory, explaining the search for deeper unification in fundamental physics to a broad audience.
1992	Jorge Zanelli Physicist	BTZ Black Hole	Chile	With Maximo Banados and Claudio Teitelboim, discovers the three-dimensional anti-de Sitter black hole now known as the BTZ black hole.
15 October 1993	Leonard Susskind Physicist	Black Hole Complementarity	United States of America	With Larus Thorlacius and John Uglum, develops black hole complementarity using a stretched-horizon description.
15 October 1993	Larus Thorlacius Physicist	Black Hole Complementarity	Iceland	With Leonard Susskind and John Uglum, develops the stretched-horizon formulation of black hole complementarity.
1993	—	USEC Enrichment Operations	Paducah, United States of America	Federal uranium-enrichment operations at Paducah and Portsmouth are transferred to the United States Enrichment Corporation under leasing arrangements.
1993	Gerard 't Hooft Physicist	Holographic Principle	Netherlands	Argues that gravitational physics can be described by information encoded on a lower-dimensional boundary, helping establish the holographic principle.
1993	Donald Eigler Physicist	Quantum Corral Electron Standing Waves	San Jose, United States of America	Builds a ring of atoms with a scanning tunnelling microscope and images standing-wave patterns of surface electrons confined inside it.
1993	Don Page Physicist	Page Curve	Canada	Derives the characteristic entropy evolution now called the Page curve for radiation from an evaporating black hole under unitary evolution.
1993	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	ICTP Leadership	Trieste, Pakistan	Ends his long period as director of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics after building it into a major international research institution.
1993	Robert Wald Physicist	Noether Charge Entropy	United States of America	Shows that black hole entropy in a broad class of gravitational theories can be expressed as a Noether charge.
16 December 1994	Hubert Curien Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Approval	Geneva, France	Chairs the CERN Council meeting that approves construction of the Large Hadron Collider by consensus.
16 December 1994	Christopher Llewellyn Smith Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Approval	Geneva, Great Britain	Welcomes CERN Council approval for construction of the Large Hadron Collider as the laboratory's next major high-energy physics project.
December 1994	Bertram Brockhouse Physicist	Nobel Prize for Neutron Spectroscopy	Stockholm, Canada	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for developing neutron spectroscopy.
December 1994	Clifford Shull Physicist	Nobel Prize for Neutron Diffraction	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for developing the neutron diffraction technique.
1994	Sigurd Hofmann Physicist	Discovery of Darmstadtium	Darmstadt, Germany	Leads a team that produces element 110, later named darmstadtium, by fusing heavy atomic nuclei at the GSI laboratory.
1994	Sigurd Hofmann Physicist	Discovery of Roentgenium	Darmstadt, Germany	Leads a team that produces element 111, later named roentgenium, extending the known periodic table through heavy-ion fusion.
1994	Ashoke Sen Physicist	S-Duality	Allahabad, India	Ashoke Sen provides influential evidence for strong-weak coupling duality in four-dimensional string theory.
1995	Leonard Susskind Physicist	The World as a Hologram	United States of America	Develops the holographic principle in a concrete framework motivated by black hole entropy and information.
1995	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Quantum Theory of Fields	United States of America, United States of America	Publishes the first volume of The Quantum Theory of Fields, synthesizing modern quantum field theory for advanced researchers and students.
21 November 1996	Abdus Salam Theoretical Physicist	Death	Oxford, Pakistan	Dies in Oxford after a career combining fundamental particle physics with advocacy for scientific development in poorer countries.
20 December 1996	Hubert Curien Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Construction Plan	Geneva, France	Presides as CERN Council approves completing the Large Hadron Collider in a single construction stage rather than the original two-stage plan.
1996	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Retirement	Edinburgh, Great Britain	Retires from the University of Edinburgh and becomes Professor Emeritus.
1996	Sigurd Hofmann Physicist	Discovery of Copernicium	Darmstadt, Germany	Leads experiments producing element 112, later named copernicium, and provides evidence for another superheavy element.
8 December 1997	Federico Pena Government Official	Large Hadron Collider International Participation	Geneva, United States of America	Signs an agreement establishing major United States participation in construction of the Large Hadron Collider and its experiments.
1997	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	European Physics Prize	Europe, Belgium	Shares the European Physical Society High Energy and Particle Physics Prize with Francois Englert and Peter Higgs.
1997	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	European Physics Prize	Europe, Belgium	Shares the European Physical Society High Energy and Particle Physics Prize with Robert Brout and Peter Higgs.
1997	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Dirac Medal	Great Britain, Great Britain	Receives the Institute of Physics Paul Dirac Medal and Prize for his contributions to theoretical particle physics.
1997	Juan Maldacena Physicist	AdS-CFT Correspondence	Argentina	Proposes the AdS-CFT correspondence, providing a non-gravitational description of quantum gravity that became central to modern studies of black holes and information.
1997	Rainer Weiss Physicist	LIGO	Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States of America	Weiss helps shape the laser interferometer design that becomes central to LIGO
1997	Anton Zeilinger Quantum Physicist	Quantum Teleportation Experiment	Innsbruck, Austria	Co-demonstrates experimental quantum teleportation using entangled photons.
1997	Anton Zeilinger Quantum Physicist	Teleportation of a Photon State	Innsbruck, Austria	Transfers an unknown photon state without transporting the original particle.
10 August 1998	Lionel Jospin Prime Minister	Large Hadron Collider Civil Engineering	France, France	Authorizes French civil-engineering work needed for Large Hadron Collider construction on the French side of the CERN site.
December 1998	Robert Betts Laughlin Physicist	Nobel Prize for Fractional Quantum Hall Effect	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for explaining the fractional quantum Hall effect.
December 1998	Horst Ludwig Stormer Physicist	Nobel Prize for Fractional Quantum Hall Effect	Stockholm, Germany	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect.
December 1998	Daniel Tsui Physicist	Nobel Prize for Fractional Quantum Hall Effect	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect.
1998	Barry Clark Barish Physicist	LIGO	California Institute of Technology, United States of America	Barish directs LIGO construction and organisation during its transformation into a major observatory
1998	David DiVincenzo Physicist	Electron Spin Qubit Proposal	United States of America, United States of America	With Daniel Loss, proposes quantum-dot electron spins as controllable quantum bits.
1998	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Professor Emeritus	Brussels, Belgium	Becomes professor emeritus at the Universite Libre de Bruxelles after decades of teaching and research.
1998	Daniel Loss Physicist	Electron Spin Qubit Proposal	Basel, Switzerland	With David DiVincenzo, proposes using the spin states of individual electrons in quantum dots as quantum bits.
1998	Ashoke Sen Physicist	Stable Non-BPS States	Allahabad, India	Ashoke Sen demonstrates how duality can identify stable non-BPS states in string theory and determine their properties.
1998	Ashoke Sen Physicist	Tachyon Condensation	Allahabad, India	Ashoke Sen develops influential ideas about tachyon condensation in unstable D-brane systems within string theory.
1998	Edward Witten Physicist	AdS Black Hole Phase Transition	United States of America	Relates thermal phase transitions in anti-de Sitter black holes to confinement transitions in the dual gauge theory.
1999	Geradus 't Hooft	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Netherlands	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions.
1999	Lene Vestergaard Hau Physicist	Light Reduced to Bicycle Speed	Cambridge Massachusetts, Denmark	Reduces a light pulse to speeds comparable with ordinary transport.
1999	Lene Vestergaard Hau Physicist	Slow Light Experiment	Cambridge Massachusetts, Denmark	Leads an experiment slowing light dramatically in an ultracold atomic gas.
1999	Martinus Veltman	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Netherlands	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions.
10 December 2000	Zhores Ivanovich Alferov Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Russia	Shares the Nobel Prize for developing semiconductor heterostructures.
10 December 2000	Zhores Ivanovich Alferov Physicist	Semiconductor Heterostructures	Stockholm, Russia	The achievement marks semiconductor heterostructures as an important Russian scientific milestone.
December 2000	Zhores Alferov Physicist	Nobel Prize for Semiconductor Heterostructures	Stockholm, Russia	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed and optoelectronic devices.
December 2000	Herbert Kroemer Physicist	Nobel Prize for Semiconductor Heterostructures	Stockholm, Germany	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for developing semiconductor heterostructures for high-speed and optoelectronics.
2000	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees the LEP collider finish operations without a confirmed Higgs discovery, leaving the particle as a central target for future collider experiments.
2000	Yuri Oganessian Physicist	Discovery of Livermorium	Dubna, Russia	Leads collaborative experiments that produce atoms of element 116, later named livermorium, through fusion of heavy nuclei.
May 2001	—	Portsmouth Enrichment Closure	Piketon, United States of America	Uranium-enrichment activities at the Portsmouth Gaseous Diffusion Plant conclude after roughly half a century of operation.
2001	Hartmut Haffner Physicist	Bound Electron g-Factor Measurement	Mainz, Germany	Helps measure the magnetic moment of a bound electron in hydrogenlike carbon with a Penning trap, providing a precision test of strong-field quantum electrodynamics.
2001	Lene Vestergaard Hau Physicist	Stopped Light	Cambridge Massachusetts, Denmark	Stops a light pulse temporarily inside an atomic medium.
2001	Lene Vestergaard Hau Physicist	Stored Optical Information	Cambridge Massachusetts, Denmark	Stores and later retrieves optical information using coherent atomic states.
2002	Roberto Emparan Physicist	Black Ring	Spain	With Harvey Reall, discovers an asymptotically flat five-dimensional rotating black hole with a ring-shaped event horizon.
2002	Samir Mathur Physicist	Fuzzball Proposal	India	Develops the fuzzball proposal in string theory, replacing the conventional black hole interior with horizon-scale quantum microstate structure.
2002	Yuri Oganessian Physicist	Discovery of Oganesson	Dubna, Russia	Leads experiments that produce element 118, later named oganesson, completing the seventh period of the modern periodic table.
2002	Harvey Reall Physicist	Black Ring	Great Britain	With Roberto Emparan, discovers the five-dimensional rotating black ring solution, demonstrating that higher-dimensional black holes need not have spherical horizons.
10 December 2003	Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov Theoretical Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Russia	Shares the Nobel Prize for theories explaining superconductors and superfluids.
10 December 2003	Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov Theoretical Physicist	Type-II Superconductivity	Stockholm, Russia	The achievement marks type-ii superconductivity as an important Russian scientific milestone.
10 December 2003	Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg Theoretical Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Russia	Shares the Nobel Prize for pioneering contributions to superconductivity theory.
10 December 2003	Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg Theoretical Physicist	Superconductivity Theory	Stockholm, Russia	The achievement marks superconductivity theory as an important Russian scientific milestone.
20 April 2004	Francis Everitt Physicist	Gravity Probe B	Vandenberg Air Force Base, United States of America	Leads the mission launched to test geodetic precession and frame dragging predicted by general relativity.
2004	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Jerusalem, Belgium	Shares the Wolf Prize in Physics with Francois Englert and Peter Higgs for the theoretical mechanism underlying gauge-particle mass generation.
2004	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Wolf Prize	Jerusalem, Belgium	Receives the Wolf Prize in Physics with Francois Englert and Peter Higgs for pioneering work on mass generation through broken gauge symmetry.
2004	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Jerusalem, Belgium	Shares the Wolf Prize in Physics with Robert Brout and Peter Higgs for pioneering work on mass generation through broken gauge symmetry.
2004	Andre Geim Physicist	Graphene Isolation and Electron Transport	Manchester, Great Britain	With Konstantin Novoselov, isolates graphene and studies its unusual two-dimensional electronic behaviour.
2004	Stephen William Hawking Physicist	Black Hole Information Revision	Dublin, Great Britain	Announces a revised position on the black hole information problem, arguing that quantum information need not be permanently lost.
2004	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Jerusalem, Great Britain	Shares the Wolf Prize in Physics with Robert Brout and Francois Englert for pioneering work that established the mechanism of mass generation.
2004	Konstantin Novoselov Physicist	Graphene Electronic Transport	Manchester, Russia	With Andre Geim, isolates graphene and measures its unusual electronic transport in a one-atom-thick carbon lattice.
7 March 2005	Lyn Evans Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Magnet Installation	Geneva, Great Britain	Oversees the project as the first superconducting dipole magnet is lowered into the Large Hadron Collider tunnel.
25 August 2005	Lyn Evans Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Installation	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees major detector magnet milestones reached for ATLAS and CMS while installation of the Large Hadron Collider continues.
2005	Charles Kane Physicist	Quantum Spin Hall Effect Theory	Philadelphia, United States of America	With Eugene Mele, predicts a two-dimensional topological state whose edge channels carry spin-filtered electrons protected by time-reversal symmetry.
2005	Philip Kim Physicist	Graphene Quantum Hall Effect	New York, South Korea	Demonstrates unusual quantum Hall behaviour of charge carriers in graphene.
2005	Eugene Mele Physicist	Quantum Spin Hall Theory	Philadelphia, United States of America	With Charles Kane, develops the theoretical model for a quantum spin Hall state with protected electron edge channels.
2005	Frans Pretorius Physicist	Binary Black Hole Simulation	Canada	Achieves the first successful full numerical simulation of the inspiral and merger of two black holes through the final ringdown.
23 June 2006	Lyn Evans Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Start-Up Planning	Geneva, Great Britain	Reports plans for initial Large Hadron Collider collisions as accelerator and detector installation approaches its final commissioning phase.
2006	John Baker Physicist	Binary Black Hole Evolutions	United States of America	With collaborators, develops stable numerical evolutions of orbiting black holes through merger and ringdown using moving punctures.
2006	Manuela Campanelli Physicist	Moving Puncture Method	Italy	With collaborators, demonstrates a moving-puncture method that enables stable long-term numerical simulations of orbiting and merging black holes.
2006	Gerald Gabrielse Physicist	Single-Electron Magnetic Moment Measurement	Cambridge Massachusetts, United States of America	Uses a single trapped electron to make an exceptionally precise measurement of the electron magnetic moment.
2006	Shoucheng Zhang Physicist	HgTe Quantum Spin Hall Prediction	Stanford, United States of America	With collaborators, predicts a quantum spin Hall state in mercury-telluride quantum wells.
22 June 2007	Robert Aymar Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Start-Up Schedule	Geneva, France	Announces a revised Large Hadron Collider start-up schedule after delays in installation and commissioning.
December 2007	Albert Fert Physicist	Nobel Prize for Giant Magnetoresistance	Stockholm, France	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovery of giant magnetoresistance and spin-dependent electron transport.
December 2007	Peter Grunberg Physicist	Nobel Prize for Giant Magnetoresistance	Stockholm, Germany	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovery of giant magnetoresistance.
2007	Laurens Molenkamp Physicist	Quantum Spin Hall Effect Observed	Wurzburg, Netherlands	Leads experiments in mercury-telluride quantum wells that observe edge conduction associated with the quantum spin Hall state.
2007	Laurens Molenkamp Physicist	Quantum Spin Hall Experiment	Wurzburg, Netherlands	Leads experiments observing edge conduction consistent with the quantum spin Hall effect in mercury-telluride wells.
10 September 2008	Lyn Evans Physicist	Large Hadron Collider First Beam	Geneva, Great Britain	Leads the project as the first proton beam successfully circulates around the full 27-kilometre Large Hadron Collider ring.
19 September 2008	Lyn Evans Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Incident	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees an electrical connection failure cause serious damage in one Large Hadron Collider sector, forcing an extended repair programme.
21 October 2008	Robert Aymar Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Inauguration	Geneva, France	Participates in the official inauguration of the Large Hadron Collider following the successful circulation of its first beam.
2008	David Hanneke Physicist	Improved Electron g-Factor Measurement	Cambridge Massachusetts, United States of America	With collaborators, improves the precision measurement of the electron magnetic moment using a single trapped electron.
20 November 2009	Rolf-Dieter Heuer Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Restart	Geneva, Germany	Sees proton beams circulate again in the Large Hadron Collider after repairs and consolidation following the 2008 incident.
30 November 2009	Rolf-Dieter Heuer Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Beam Energy Record	Geneva, Germany	Announces that the Large Hadron Collider has set a world record for particle-beam energy at 1.18 TeV per beam.
16 December 2009	Rolf-Dieter Heuer Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Collision Record	Geneva, Germany	Sees the Large Hadron Collider produce 2.36 TeV proton collisions, setting a new world record for collider energy.
December 2009	Willard Boyle Physicist	Nobel Prize for CCD Imaging	Stockholm, Canada	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for invention of the imaging semiconductor circuit known as the CCD.
December 2009	George Elwood Smith Physicist	Nobel Prize for CCD Imaging	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for invention of the CCD imaging semiconductor circuit.
30 March 2010	Rolf-Dieter Heuer Physicist	Large Hadron Collider High-Energy Collisions	Geneva, Germany	Welcomes the first Large Hadron Collider proton collisions at a total energy of 7 TeV, beginning sustained high-energy physics running.
13 October 2010	Steve Myers Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Luminosity	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees the Large Hadron Collider reach its 2010 luminosity target ahead of schedule during the first year of 7 TeV proton physics.
8 November 2010	Rolf-Dieter Heuer Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Lead Ions	Geneva, Germany	Sees lead-ion beams introduced into the Large Hadron Collider, opening a programme studying extremely hot and dense strongly interacting matter.
December 2010	Andre Geim Physicist	Nobel Prize for Graphene	Stockholm, Great Britain	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for groundbreaking experiments regarding two-dimensional graphene.
December 2010	Konstantin Novoselov Physicist	Nobel Prize for Graphene	Stockholm, Great Britain	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for groundbreaking experiments on graphene's electronic properties.
2010	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Sakurai Prize	Washington, Belgium	Shares the J. J. Sakurai Prize with Englert, Higgs, Guralnik, Hagen and Kibble for foundational work on spontaneous symmetry breaking.
2010	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Washington, Belgium	Shares the J. J. Sakurai Prize with five other theorists for elucidating spontaneous symmetry breaking and consistent vector-boson mass generation.
2010	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Washington, Great Britain	Shares the J. J. Sakurai Prize for work explaining spontaneous symmetry breaking in relativistic gauge theory.
2010	Charles Marcus Physicist	Coherent Single-Electron Transport	Cambridge Massachusetts, United States of America	Advances controlled quantum transport of individual electrons in semiconductor nanostructures.
22 April 2011	Rolf-Dieter Heuer Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Beam Intensity Record	Geneva, Germany	Announces that the Large Hadron Collider has surpassed the Tevatron's hadron-collider luminosity record, increasing its discovery potential.
3 May 2011	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Death	Linkebeek, Belgium	Dies at his home in Linkebeek, Belgium, before the experimental discovery associated with the mechanism he helped formulate.
4 May 2011	Francis Everitt Physicist	Gravity Probe B Results	Washington DC, United States of America	Announces final Gravity Probe B results confirming geodetic precession and frame dragging around Earth.
2011	Stefanos Aretakis Mathematician	Extremal Horizon Instability	Greece	Discovers an instability of extremal black hole horizons in which certain derivatives of perturbing fields fail to decay and can grow along the horizon.
2011	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Chapman University	Orange, California, Belgium	Joins Chapman University's Institute for Quantum Studies as a distinguished visiting professor and founding member.
2011	Steve Myers Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Operations	Geneva, Great Britain	Guides accelerator operations as the Large Hadron Collider substantially increases delivered collision data during its second year of proton running.
2011	Saul Perlmutter	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae.
2011	Adam G. Riess	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the accelerating expansion of the Universe through observations of distant supernovae.
5 April 2012	Steve Myers Physicist	Large Hadron Collider 8 TeV Collisions	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees the Large Hadron Collider begin proton collisions at a total centre-of-mass energy of 8 TeV.
4 July 2012	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Experimental Confirmation	Geneva, Belgium	Receives posthumous scientific vindication when ATLAS and CMS announce a new particle consistent with the boson implied by the Brout-Englert-Higgs mechanism.
4 July 2012	Fabiola Gianotti Experimental Physicist	Higgs Boson	Geneva, Italy	Presents the ATLAS collaboration's evidence for a new particle near 125 GeV at CERN during the Higgs discovery seminar.
4 July 2012	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Higgs Boson Discovery	Geneva, Italy	Presents the ATLAS collaboration's evidence for a new particle near 125 GeV during CERN's Higgs boson discovery announcement.
4 July 2012	Rolf-Dieter Heuer Physicist · CERN Director-General	Higgs Boson	Geneva, Germany	As CERN Director-General, welcomes the ATLAS and CMS results announcing observation of a new particle consistent with the long-sought Higgs boson.
4 July 2012	Rolf-Dieter Heuer Physicist	Higgs Boson Discovery	Geneva, Germany	Announces that ATLAS and CMS have observed a new particle consistent with the long-sought Higgs boson.
4 July 2012	Peter Ware Higgs Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Higgs Result	Geneva, Great Britain	Witnesses CERN announce a new particle consistent with the boson predicted by the symmetry-breaking mechanism associated with his work.
4 July 2012	Joe Incandela Experimental Physicist	Higgs Boson	Geneva, United States of America	Presents the CMS collaboration's independent evidence for a new particle near 125 GeV during CERN's announcement of the discovery.
4 July 2012	Joe Incandela Physicist	Higgs Boson Discovery	Geneva, United States of America	Presents the CMS collaboration's independent evidence for a new particle near 125 GeV during CERN's Higgs boson discovery announcement.
28 September 2012	Steve Myers Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Data Target	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees the Large Hadron Collider reach its 2012 target of delivering 15 inverse femtobarns of data to ATLAS and CMS.
2012	Serge Haroche	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, France	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for experimental methods enabling measurement and manipulation of individual quantum systems.
2012	Leo Kouwenhoven Physicist	Majorana Nanowire Tunnelling Signature	Delft, Netherlands	Reports a zero-bias tunnelling feature in a semiconductor-superconductor nanowire consistent with Majorana bound states.
2012	Donald Marolf Physicist	Black Hole Firewall	United States of America	With collaborators, formulates the firewall paradox as a challenge to conventional assumptions about black hole horizons and quantum information.
2012	Joseph Polchinski Physicist	Black Hole Firewall	United States of America	With collaborators, formulates the firewall argument, sharpening the conflict among unitarity, effective field theory and a smooth black hole horizon.
2012	David J. Wineland	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for experimental methods enabling measurement and manipulation of individual quantum systems.
14 February 2013	Rolf-Dieter Heuer Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Run 1 Completion	Geneva, Germany	Marks the end of the Large Hadron Collider's first three-year running period before the machine enters its first long shutdown.
14 March 2013	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Higgs Boson Properties	Geneva, Italy	Sees additional ATLAS and CMS measurements strengthen the identification of the 2012 particle as a Higgs boson.
14 March 2013	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees CERN report that additional data support the new particle having spin zero and positive parity, strengthening its identification as a Higgs boson.
14 March 2013	Peter Ware Higgs Physicist	Higgs Boson Confirmation	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees CERN report that accumulating measurements increasingly support the new particle having the properties expected of a Higgs boson.
May 2013	—	Paducah Enrichment Closure	Paducah, United States of America	Commercial uranium-enrichment operations cease at Paducah, ending more than sixty years of gaseous-diffusion production at the site.
8 July 2013	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Baron	Belgium, Belgium	Is elevated to the rank of baron by King Albert II of Belgium in recognition of his scientific achievements.
8 October 2013	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Nobel Recognition	Stockholm, Belgium	Is explicitly acknowledged in the Nobel announcement as Englert's deceased collaborator in the 1964 development of the mass-generating mechanism.
21 October 2013	Donald Marolf Physicist	Gauge-Gravity Black Hole Interior	United States of America	With Joseph Polchinski, argues that typical black holes in gauge-gravity duality may possess firewalls at the horizon.
21 October 2013	Joseph Polchinski Physicist	Gauge-Gravity Black Hole Interior	United States of America	With Donald Marolf, develops a gauge-gravity argument supporting firewalls in typical black hole states.
10 December 2013	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist · Nobel Laureate	Higgs Boson	Stockholm, Belgium	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics after CERN measurements confirm a particle associated with the symmetry-breaking mechanism proposed in 1964.
2013	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	Scientific Legacy	Brussels, Belgium	Is remembered as the third member of the Brout-Englert-Higgs collaboration whose death made him ineligible to share the 2013 Nobel Prize.
2013	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Prince of Asturias Award	Oviedo, Belgium	Shares the Prince of Asturias Award for Technical and Scientific Research with Peter Higgs and CERN.
2013	François Englert	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Belgium	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for the theoretical discovery of the mechanism explaining the origin of mass of subatomic particles.
2013	Peter Higgs	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Great Britain	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for the theoretical discovery of the mechanism explaining the origin of mass of subatomic particles.
2013	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Companion of Honour	Great Britain, Great Britain	Is appointed a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in the New Year Honours.
2013	Juan Maldacena Physicist	ER Equals EPR	Argentina	With Leonard Susskind, proposes that quantum entanglement and Einstein-Rosen bridges may be deeply connected, a conjecture known as ER equals EPR.
2013	Leonard Susskind Physicist	ER Equals EPR	United States of America	With Juan Maldacena, proposes the ER equals EPR conjecture connecting entanglement with wormhole geometry in quantum gravity.
23 June 2014	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees CERN report stronger evidence that the Higgs boson decays directly to fermions, extending tests of how the Higgs field couples to matter particles.
2014	Isamu Akasaki	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Japan	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for inventing efficient blue light-emitting diodes, enabling bright energy-saving white light sources.
2014	Hiroshi Amano	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Japan	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for inventing efficient blue light-emitting diodes, enabling bright energy-saving white light sources.
2014	Robert Brout Theoretical Physicist	BEH Terminology	Brussels, Belgium	Continues to be commemorated in the term Brout-Englert-Higgs mechanism, which recognizes his central role in the 1964 theory.
2014	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Preparations	Geneva, Italy	Prepares for renewed high-energy physics as the Large Hadron Collider and its experiments approach the end of the first long shutdown.
14 July 2015	Guy Wilkinson Physicist	Pentaquark Discovery	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees the LHCb collaboration report structures interpreted as pentaquark states in decays recorded with Large Hadron Collider data.
14 September 2015	Gabriela Gonzalez Physicist	GW150914 Black Hole Merger	Argentina	As LIGO Scientific Collaboration spokesperson, helps lead the collaboration when LIGO records GW150914, the first direct gravitational-wave detection and first observed binary black hole merger.
14 September 2015	Kip Stephen Thorne Physicist	Gravitational Waves	California Institute of Technology, United States of America	Thornes black hole and gravitational wave theory helps interpret the first LIGO detection
14 September 2015	Rainer Weiss Physicist	Gravitational Waves	LIGO Hanford Observatory, United States of America	Weiss sees the interferometer concept vindicated when LIGO detects gravitational waves from merging black holes
25 November 2015	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Lead-Ion Collisions	Geneva, Italy	Sees the Large Hadron Collider begin lead-ion collisions at roughly twice the energy achieved in its previous heavy-ion programme.
26 December 2015	Gabriela Gonzalez Physicist	GW151226 Black Hole Merger	Argentina	During her term as LIGO Scientific Collaboration spokesperson, LIGO records GW151226, its second confirmed gravitational-wave signal from merging stellar-mass black holes.
2015	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Run 2	Geneva, Italy	Sees the Large Hadron Collider begin Run 2 with proton collisions at the new energy frontier of 13 TeV.
2015	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Copley Medal	London, Great Britain	Receives the Royal Society's Copley Medal for his fundamental contribution to particle physics.
2015	Takaaki Kajita	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Japan	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering neutrino oscillations, showing that neutrinos have mass.
2015	Arthur B. McDonald	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Canada	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering neutrino oscillations, showing that neutrinos have mass.
11 February 2016	David Reitze Physicist	Gravitational Waves	Washington DC, United States of America	Reitze announces the first direct detection of gravitational waves by the LIGO collaboration
11 July 2016	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Luminosity	Geneva, Italy	Sees Large Hadron Collider performance exceed expectations as ATLAS and CMS rapidly accumulate substantially more Run 2 collision data.
2016	Stephen William Hawking Physicist	Soft Hair on Black Holes	Great Britain	With Malcolm Perry and Andrew Strominger, proposes that soft quantum degrees of freedom on horizons may carry information about black holes.
2016	Mike Lamont Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Operations	Geneva, Great Britain	Helps oversee accelerator performance as the Large Hadron Collider operates with more than two thousand proton bunches per beam.
2016	Malcolm Perry Physicist	Soft Hair on Black Holes	Great Britain	With Stephen Hawking and Andrew Strominger, develops the proposal that black hole horizons can carry soft quantum hair.
2016	Andrew Strominger Physicist	Soft Hair on Black Holes	United States of America	With Stephen Hawking and Malcolm Perry, develops a soft-hair framework linking horizon symmetries to the black hole information problem.
14 August 2017	David Shoemaker Physicist	GW170814 Three-Detector Black Hole Merger	United States of America	During his leadership of the LIGO Scientific Collaboration, LIGO and Virgo make their first three-detector observation of a binary black hole merger.
3 October 2017	Barry Barish Physicist	Nobel Prize for LIGO	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves from sources including merging black holes.
3 October 2017	Kip Stephen Thorne Physicist	Nobel Prize for LIGO	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for decisive contributions to LIGO and gravitational-wave astronomy, inaugurated by the detection of a binary black hole merger.
3 October 2017	Rainer Weiss Physicist	Nobel Prize for LIGO	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for decisive contributions to LIGO and the observation of gravitational waves, first detected from a binary black hole merger.
October 2017	Barry Clark Barish Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Barish receives the Nobel Prize for leadership and decisive contributions to LIGO
October 2017	Kip Stephen Thorne Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Thorne receives the Nobel Prize for decisive contributions to LIGO and gravitational wave observation
October 2017	Rainer Weiss Physicist	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Weiss receives the Nobel Prize for decisive contributions to LIGO and gravitational wave observation
2017	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Physics	Geneva, Italy	Sees Run 2 continue producing large proton-collision datasets for precision Standard Model measurements and searches for physics beyond it.
3 December 2018	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Run 2 Completion	Geneva, Italy	Marks the end of Large Hadron Collider Run 2 after four years of 13 TeV proton collisions and extensive heavy-ion running.
3 December 2018	Mike Lamont Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Long Shutdown 2	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees the Large Hadron Collider enter Long Shutdown 2 for major maintenance, consolidation and upgrades.
2018	Arthur Ashkin	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for optical tweezers and their application to biological systems.
2018	Yuan Cao Physicist	Magic-Angle Twisted Bilayer Graphene	Cambridge Massachusetts, China	Leads measurements revealing strongly correlated electron behaviour in magic-angle twisted bilayer graphene.
2018	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Higgs Bottom-Quark Decay	Geneva, Italy	Sees ATLAS and CMS report observation of Higgs boson decay into bottom quarks using Large Hadron Collider data.
2018	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees ATLAS and CMS report observation of Higgs-boson decay to bottom quarks, confirming an important predicted coupling to fermionic matter.
2018	Pablo Jarillo-Herrero Physicist	Magic-Angle Graphene Superconductivity	Cambridge Massachusetts, Spain	Leads experiments showing correlated insulating and superconducting electron states in magic-angle twisted bilayer graphene.
2018	Gérard Mourou	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, France	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for a method of generating high-intensity, ultrashort optical pulses.
2018	Donna Strickland	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Canada	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for a method of generating high-intensity, ultrashort optical pulses.
1 April 2019	Rainer Weiss Physicist	LIGO Observation Run	United States of America	LIGO and Virgo begin the O3 observing run for gravitational waves.
2019	Reinhard Dorner Physicist	Electron Correlation Imaging	Frankfurt, Germany	Uses coincidence momentum imaging to study correlated electron motion in atoms and molecules.
2019	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Upgrade	Geneva, Italy	Oversees CERN while accelerator teams begin extensive Long Shutdown 2 upgrades to the Large Hadron Collider and its injector chain.
2019	Michel Mayor	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Switzerland	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering an exoplanet orbiting a solar-type star.
2019	Geoffrey Penington Physicist	Entanglement Wedge Reconstruction	Great Britain	Shows how quantum extremal surfaces can reproduce a Page curve and recover information from an evaporating black hole in holographic models.
2019	Didier Queloz	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Switzerland	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering an exoplanet orbiting a solar-type star.
6 October 2020	Andrea Ghez Astronomer	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for work on the supermassive compact object at the centre of the Milky Way.
6 October 2020	Roger Penrose Mathematician	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Great Britain	Awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for showing that black hole formation is a robust prediction of general relativity.
2020	Reinhard Genzel	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Germany	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering a supermassive compact object at the centre of the Milky Way.
2020	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Detector Upgrades	Geneva, Italy	Sees ATLAS, CMS, ALICE and LHCb continue major detector and data-acquisition upgrades in preparation for higher-rate Run 3 collisions.
2020	Juan Maldacena Physicist	Semiclassical Page Curve	Argentina	With collaborators, derives the Page curve of Hawking radiation from semiclassical gravity using replica methods and quantum extremal surfaces.
23 July 2021	Steven Weinberg Theoretical Physicist	Death	Austin, United States of America	Dies in Austin after a career that reshaped particle physics, quantum field theory and modern cosmology.
10 December 2021	Klaus Hasselmann Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Germany	Is honoured for climate modelling that connected weather variability with long-term climate change.
10 December 2021	Syukuro Manabe Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Japan	Is honoured for climate modelling that quantified variability and helped predict global warming.
10 December 2021	Giorgio Parisi Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Italy	Is honoured for discovering how disorder and fluctuations interact in complex physical systems.
2021	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Run 3 Preparations	Geneva, Italy	Oversees final preparations for restarting the Large Hadron Collider after the extended maintenance and upgrade programme.
2021	Klaus Hasselmann	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Germany	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for physical modelling of Earth's climate, quantifying variability and reliably predicting global warming.
2021	Giorgio Parisi	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Italy	Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales.
22 April 2022	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Restart	Geneva, Italy	Sees proton beams circulate in the Large Hadron Collider again after more than three years of maintenance, consolidation and upgrades.
4 July 2022	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Higgs Boson Tenth Anniversary	Geneva, Italy	Marks ten years since the ATLAS and CMS collaborations announced the discovery of a Higgs boson using Large Hadron Collider data.
4 July 2022	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Higgs Boson	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees CERN mark ten years since the discovery with increasingly precise measurements supporting the Higgs boson's predicted spin-zero Standard Model properties.
4 July 2022	Peter Ware Higgs Physicist	Higgs Boson Tenth Anniversary	Geneva, Great Britain	Sees CERN commemorate ten years of increasingly precise measurements of the Higgs boson discovered with Large Hadron Collider data.
5 July 2022	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Record Energy	Geneva, Italy	Sees the Large Hadron Collider establish routine physics collisions at 13.6 TeV, the highest centre-of-mass energy then achieved by a collider.
5 July 2022	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Run 3	Geneva, Italy	Marks the start of Run 3 physics as the Large Hadron Collider delivers proton collisions at the record energy of 13.6 TeV.
10 December 2022	Alain Aspect Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, France	Shares the physics prize for experiments with entangled photons and advances in quantum information science.
10 December 2022	John F Clauser Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the physics prize for experiments with entangled photons and tests of Bell inequalities.
10 December 2022	Anton Zeilinger Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Austria	Shares the physics prize for experiments with entangled photons and advances in quantum information science.
2022	Alain Aspect	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, France	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for experiments with entangled photons, Bell inequality violations and pioneering quantum information science.
2022	John F. Clauser	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for experiments with entangled photons, Bell inequality violations and pioneering quantum information science.
2022	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Experiment Upgrades	Geneva, Italy	Sees upgraded ATLAS, CMS, ALICE and LHCb systems begin collecting larger and higher-quality Run 3 datasets.
2022	Joe Incandela Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Run 3	Geneva, United States of America	Sees CMS exploit rapidly accumulated 13.6 TeV collision data to produce early Run 3 measurements of top-quark pair production.
2022	Anton Zeilinger	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Austria	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for experiments with entangled photons, Bell inequality violations and pioneering quantum information science.
10 December 2023	Pierre Agostini Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, France	Shares the physics prize for methods producing attosecond light pulses to study electron dynamics.
10 December 2023	Ferenc Krausz Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Hungary	Shares the physics prize for methods producing attosecond light pulses to study electron dynamics.
10 December 2023	Anne LHuillier Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, France	Shares the physics prize for methods producing attosecond light pulses to study electron dynamics.
2023	Pierre Agostini Physicist	Attosecond Electron Dynamics	Columbus, France	Develops attosecond light-pulse methods that allow electron motion and energy changes in matter to be tracked on their natural time scale.
2023	Fabiola Gianotti Physicist	Large Hadron Collider Run 3 Physics	Geneva, Italy	Sees the Large Hadron Collider continue Run 3 measurements of Higgs physics, heavy flavours, heavy ions and precision Standard Model processes.
2023	John Tisch Physicist	Attosecond Electron Dynamics Experiments	London, Great Britain	Uses ultrafast light techniques to investigate electron motion on attosecond time scales.
8 April 2024	Peter Ware Higgs Theoretical Physicist	Death	Edinburgh, Great Britain	Dies at home in Edinburgh at the age of ninety-four, leaving a central legacy in the Standard Model of particle physics.
10 December 2024	Geoffrey Hinton Computer Scientist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, Great Britain	Shares the physics prize for foundational work enabling machine learning with artificial neural networks.
10 December 2024	John J Hopfield Physicist	Nobel Prize in Physics	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the physics prize for foundational work enabling machine learning with artificial neural networks.
2024	John J. Hopfield	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for foundational discoveries and inventions enabling machine learning with artificial neural networks.
2025	John Clarke	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, Great Britain	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering macroscopic quantum tunnelling and energy quantisation in an electric circuit.
2025	Michel H. Devoret	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, France	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering macroscopic quantum tunnelling and energy quantisation in an electric circuit.
2025	John M. Martinis	Nobel Prize	Stockholm, United States of America	Shares the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering macroscopic quantum tunnelling and energy quantisation in an electric circuit.
18 June 2026	Francois Englert Theoretical Physicist	Death	Uccle, Belgium	Dies in Uccle at the age of ninety-three after a career spanning particle physics, cosmology and quantum field theory.

Page 1

Section 2 · What the archive covers

Explore physicists, discoveries and theories across four centuries

From classical physics to electromagnetism

The archive begins with early modern work on motion, pressure, light and mechanics, then follows the development of electricity, magnetism, thermodynamics and electromagnetic theory through the nineteenth century.

Relativity, quantum theory and atomic physics

Twentieth-century records connect Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg, Schrödinger, Thomson, Rutherford and other physicists with relativity, quantum mechanics, atomic structure, spectroscopy and experimental tests.

Nuclear and particle physics

Later records cover radioactivity, nuclear structure, neutron physics, fission, fusion, accelerators, particle discoveries, the Higgs field and the extension of the periodic table into superheavy elements.

Start with the Significant Events Timeline, the Physics topics index, or browse physicists A–Z. For wider historical context, use the full World History Database.

Section 3 · Visual introduction

People who changed physics

Portraits of scientists represented in the World History Database Physics collection.

Albert Einstein portrait — **Albert Einstein**Relativity, quantum theory and twentieth-century theoretical physics. Public-domain image · Wikimedia Commons

Marie Curie portrait — **Marie Curie**Radioactivity, radium and pioneering experimental physics. Public-domain image · Wikimedia Commons / Library of Congress

Ernest Rutherford portrait — **Ernest Rutherford**Nuclear structure, radioactivity and the development of nuclear physics. Public domain · Bain News Service / Library of Congress

Enrico Fermi portrait — **Enrico Fermi**Quantum statistics, neutron physics and nuclear research. Public-domain image · Wikimedia Commons

Section 4 · Browse by subject

Major physics topics

Use this section to follow one branch of physics across time. Open a crawlable topic timeline below, or browse all Physics topic pages.

Relativity 82 records · static timeline Quantum Physics 150 records · static timeline Nuclear Physics 96 records · static timeline Atomic Physics 90 records · static timeline Electromagnetism 129 records · static timeline Thermodynamics 35 records · static timeline Optics, Light and X-rays 108 records · static timeline Particle Physics 170 records · static timeline

Section 5 · Browse by physicist

Featured physicist timelines

Use these pages when you want to follow one physicist chronologically. Each is a crawlable static timeline. Browse the full Physicists A–Z index.

Section 6 · Curated timelines

Significant events in physics

Use this section for a shorter, curated route through major milestones rather than searching the complete database.

Significant Events Timeline 48 milestones · 1583–2016 · static chronological page

Section 7 · Scope of the Physics collection

What this physics history collection covers

Classical and experimental physics

Follow developments in motion, pressure, electricity, magnetism, heat, light, spectroscopy and experimental instrumentation from the early modern period onward.

Relativity and quantum physics

Trace the development of relativity, quantum theory, atomic structure, electron physics and the experimental work that reshaped twentieth-century physics.

Nuclear and particle physics

Explore radioactivity, nuclear structure, fission, fusion, particle discoveries, accelerators and the extension of the periodic table into superheavy elements.

Section 8 · Related research tools

Continue your research

Use the specialist Physics page as a starting point, then cross-reference the same history through the wider database.

Editorial method, sources and corrections

Physics records are part of the World History Database and are presented as structured historical entries for chronological research. See the editorial method, sources and provenance, and corrections and contact pages for information about how the collection is maintained.

History of Physics Timeline: 1583–2026

Search the physics timeline

Explore physicists, discoveries and theories across four centuries

From classical physics to electromagnetism

Relativity, quantum theory and atomic physics

Nuclear and particle physics

People who changed physics

Major physics topics

Featured physicist timelines

Significant events in physics

What this physics history collection covers

Classical and experimental physics

Relativity and quantum physics

Nuclear and particle physics

Continue your research

Full Database

Biography

Date Search

Editorial method, sources and corrections