Birth of Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein is born in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany.
World History Database · Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein
A searchable and crawlable chronology of Einstein's scientific work, appointments, travels, awards, public activity and nuclear-era advocacy from 1879 to 1955.
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338 event topicsEvents A–ZBrowse every Einstein event label in the source collection.53 represented yearsBrowse by yearFollow Einstein records chronologically from 1879 to 1955.48 source place labelsPlacesExplore records associated with Bern, Berlin, Princeton, Zurich and other places.124 recordsPhysicsRelativity, quantum theory, statistical mechanics, unified-field work and physics appointments.18 recordsAstronomyLight deflection, cosmology, gravitational waves, eclipse tests and related astronomical work.2 recordsTechnologyEinstein–Szilard refrigerator work and related technological development.8 recordsNuclearThe Einstein–Szilard letters, atomic-weapons concerns and post-war nuclear advocacy.
Selected milestonesEinstein chronologyMajor scientific and biographical records selected from the source chronology.
- Birth of Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein is born in Ulm, Württemberg, Germany.
- Photoelectric Effect Paper Submitted
Sends his light-quantum paper to Annalen der Physik, using quanta to explain the photoelectric effect.
- Special Relativity
Submits On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, establishing the special theory of relativity.
- Mass-Energy Equivalence
Submits the paper deriving the relation between mass and energy from special relativity.
- Equivalence Principle
Formulates the equivalence principle, a decisive step toward a relativistic theory of gravitation.
- General Relativity Field Equations
Presents the final generally covariant gravitational field equations to the Prussian Academy.
- Gravitational Waves
Predicts gravitational waves as propagating disturbances in spacetime within general relativity.
- Relativity Eclipse Results Announced
Royal Society and Royal Astronomical Society report eclipse results supporting Einstein's general relativity.
- Nobel Prize in Physics
Awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical physics, especially the law of the photoelectric effect.
- Bose-Einstein Statistics
Extends Bose's statistical method from photons to particles of an ideal gas.
- Fifth Solvay Conference
Participates in the fifth Solvay Conference and debates the interpretation of quantum mechanics.
- EPR Paper
Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen publish their argument that quantum mechanics may not provide a complete description of physical reality.
- Gravitational Lensing
Publishes a calculation showing how a foreground star can gravitationally lens light from a background star.
- Einstein-Szilard Letter
Signs the Einstein-Szilard letter warning President Roosevelt about uranium chain reactions and possible powerful bombs.
- United States Citizenship
Becomes a United States citizen while retaining Swiss citizenship.
- Death of Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein dies in Princeton, New Jersey, aged 76.
- Russell-Einstein Manifesto Signed
Signs Bertrand Russell's appeal warning of nuclear war and urging peaceful resolution of international disputes.
Source classificationsScientific and public-life themesThe four General2 values used by the supplied records.
124 records
Physics
Relativity, quantum theory, statistical mechanics, gravitational theory and unified-field work.
18 recordsAstronomy
Cosmology, light deflection, gravitational waves, eclipse tests and astronomical applications.
2 recordsTechnology
The Einstein–Szilard refrigerator and related technological work.
8 recordsNuclear
Nuclear policy, the Einstein–Szilard correspondence and post-war atomic-weapons advocacy.
Einstein explainedKey theories and contributionsEight simple guides explain the idea, Einstein's contribution and why it matters.
1905Special RelativityHow motion changes measurements of space and time while the speed of light stays constant.Read explainer →1905Mass–Energy EquivalenceWhy mass and energy are connected by Einstein's famous relation E = mc².Read explainer →1907Equivalence PrincipleWhy free fall and acceleration gave Einstein the starting point for a new theory of gravity.Read explainer →1907Gravitational RedshiftHow gravity changes the frequency of light and the rate at which clocks run.Read explainer →1916–1918Gravitational WavesHow changing masses can send ripples through spacetime at the speed of light.Read explainer →1915General RelativityHow Einstein described gravity as curved spacetime shaped by matter and energy.Read explainer →1916–1917Quantum Theory of RadiationHow atoms absorb and emit light, including Einstein's prediction of stimulated emission.Read explainer →1917Cosmological ConstantWhy Einstein added Λ to his gravity equations and how the term returned in modern cosmology.Read explainer →
Selected works and ideasRelativity, quantum theory and later physicsDirect links into key event pages from the historical dataset.
1905 · Physics
Photoelectric Effect Paper Submitted
Sends his light-quantum paper to Annalen der Physik, using quanta to explain the photoelectric effect.
1905 · PhysicsSpecial Relativity
Submits On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, establishing the special theory of relativity.
1905 · PhysicsMass-Energy Equivalence
Submits the paper deriving the relation between mass and energy from special relativity.
1915 · PhysicsGeneral Relativity Field Equations
Presents the final generally covariant gravitational field equations to the Prussian Academy.
1916 · AstronomyGravitational Waves
Predicts gravitational waves as propagating disturbances in spacetime within general relativity.
1924 · PhysicsBose-Einstein Statistics
Extends Bose's statistical method from photons to particles of an ideal gas.
1935 · PhysicsEPR Paper
Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen publish their argument that quantum mechanics may not provide a complete description of physical reality.
1936 · AstronomyGravitational Lensing
Publishes a calculation showing how a foreground star can gravitationally lens light from a background star.
1939 · NuclearEinstein-Szilard Letter
Signs the Einstein-Szilard letter warning President Roosevelt about uranium chain reactions and possible powerful bombs.
Research trailSources and further researchExternal scholarly and institutional resources for deeper Einstein research.
Einstein Papers Project — CaltechDigital Einstein Papers — Princeton University PressNobel Prize — Albert Einstein factsInstitute for Advanced Study — Albert Einstein
Dataset note. The chronology on this site is generated directly from the supplied World History Database records. External links provide further context and are not substituted for the database wording.
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Swiss Citizenship
Einstein becomes a Swiss citizen after having been stateless since 1896.
Capillarity Paper
Publishes his first scientific paper, examining molecular forces through capillary phenomena.
Swiss Patent Office Appointment
Appointed Technical Expert, third class, at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern.
Statistical Mechanics Paper I
Publishes an early paper developing the kinetic theory of thermal equilibrium using statistical methods.
Foundations of Thermodynamics
Publishes further work on the foundations of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics.
Radiation Energy Fluctuations
Studies fluctuations in radiation energy, an important precursor to his later quantum work.
Photoelectric Effect Paper Submitted
Sends his light-quantum paper to Annalen der Physik, using quanta to explain the photoelectric effect.
Doctoral Dissertation Submitted
Submits A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions as his doctoral dissertation at the University of Zurich.
Brownian Motion Paper Received
Annalen der Physik receives Einstein's paper explaining Brownian motion through molecular collisions.
Special Relativity
Submits On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies, establishing the special theory of relativity.
Doctorate Approved
The University of Zurich faculty unanimously approves Einstein's doctoral dissertation.
Mass-Energy Equivalence
Submits the paper deriving the relation between mass and energy from special relativity.
Photoelectric Quantum Explanation
Explains photoelectric emission by proposing that light transfers energy in discrete quanta to electrons.
Doctorate Formally Awarded
The University of Zurich formally awards Einstein his doctorate in physics.
Molecular Dimensions Paper Published
His revised dissertation on molecular dimensions is published in Annalen der Physik.
Second Brownian Motion Paper Published
Publishes a follow-up analysis refining his theory of Brownian motion.
Patent Office Promotion
Promoted to Technical Expert, second class, at the Swiss Patent Office.
Light Production and Absorption Paper
Publishes work extending the light-quantum hypothesis to the production and absorption of radiation.
Equivalence Principle
Formulates the equivalence principle, a decisive step toward a relativistic theory of gravitation.
Gravitational Redshift
Predicts that gravity should shift the frequency of light, later called gravitational redshift.
Quantum Theory of Specific Heat
Applies quantum ideas to the specific heat of solids, an early success of quantum theory.
Privatdozent at Bern
Begins teaching at the University of Bern as a Privatdozent.
University of Geneva Honorary Doctorate
Receives his first honorary doctorate, awarded by the University of Geneva.
Zurich Physical Society Membership
Becomes a member of the Physical Society of Zurich.
Salzburg Quantum Lecture
Presents a major lecture arguing that radiation displays both wave-like and particle-like properties.
University of Zurich Appointment
Becomes associate professor of theoretical physics at the University of Zurich.
Critical Opalescence Theory
Explains critical opalescence using fluctuations near a liquid-gas critical point.
Light Deflection
Predicts that gravity should bend starlight and proposes a solar-eclipse test.
First Solvay Conference
Participates in the first Solvay Conference, discussing radiation and quantum theory with leading physicists.
Professor at Prague
Becomes professor of theoretical physics at the German University in Prague.
ETH Zurich Professorship
Begins work as professor of theoretical physics at ETH Zurich.
Tensor Calculus Collaboration
Works with Marcel Grossmann to master tensor calculus for a relativistic theory of gravitation.
Zurich Notebook
Uses the Zurich Notebook to explore candidate gravitational field equations and differential geometry.
Eclipse Test Proposal
Encourages astronomical testing of gravitational light deflection during a solar eclipse.
Einstein-Grossmann Collaboration
Collaborates closely with Marcel Grossmann on the mathematical framework of gravitation.
Entwurf Theory
Publishes the Entwurf gravitational theory with Marcel Grossmann as an intermediate step toward general relativity.
Berlin Academy Appointment
Moves to Berlin for a senior research appointment and membership of the Prussian Academy of Sciences.
Covariance Problem in Gravitation
Publishes work refining the mathematical and covariance problems of his developing gravitational theory.
Manifesto to Europeans
Co-signs a pacifist appeal opposing wartime nationalism among European intellectuals.
Restricted Covariance Equations
Presents revised gravitational field equations to the Prussian Academy during his final push toward general relativity.
Unimodular Gravitation Equations
Presents another formulation of gravitation using a restricted coordinate condition with unit determinant.
Mercury Perihelion
Explains Mercury's anomalous perihelion advance using the emerging general theory of relativity.
General Relativity Field Equations
Presents the final generally covariant gravitational field equations to the Prussian Academy.
Göttingen Society Corresponding Membership
Elected a corresponding member of the Royal Society of Sciences at Göttingen.
Einstein-de Haas Effect
Publishes experimental work with Wander de Haas linking magnetism to angular momentum.
Göttingen Relativity Lectures
Lectures on gravitation in Göttingen, stimulating intense discussion with leading mathematicians.
Gravitational Waves
Predicts gravitational waves as propagating disturbances in spacetime within general relativity.
Relativity: The Special and General Theory
Publishes his popular introduction to special and general relativity.
Foundation of General Relativity
Publishes a systematic presentation of the general theory of relativity and its field equations.
German Physical Society Presidency
Serves as president of the German Physical Society during the consolidation of general relativity.
Quantum Theory of Radiation
Develops a quantum theory of radiation introducing transition probabilities later represented by Einstein coefficients.
Cosmological Constant Introduced
Einstein adds the cosmological constant to his gravitational field equations to permit a static universe, creating the mathematical term later associated with dark energy.
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute Directorship
Becomes founding director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics.
Relativistic Cosmology
Applies general relativity to the universe and introduces the cosmological constant in a static cosmological model.
Repulsive Gravity in Empty Space
Einstein interprets the cosmological constant as a repulsive contribution capable of balancing ordinary gravitational attraction on the largest cosmic scales.
Stimulated Emission
Formulates stimulated emission in his quantum theory of radiation, a principle later fundamental to lasers.
Quadrupole Formula for Gravitational Waves
Refines gravitational-wave theory and derives the quadrupole form for radiated energy.
Quadrupole Radiation Formula
Einstein derives the quadrupole formula for gravitational radiation, relating emitted wave power to the changing mass distribution of an accelerating source.
Zurich Guest Lectures
Returns to Zurich for guest lectures while continuing work on relativity and quantum theory.
Solar Eclipse Relativity Test
British eclipse expeditions photograph stars near the Sun to test Einstein's predicted gravitational deflection.
Relativity Eclipse Results Announced
Royal Society and Royal Astronomical Society report eclipse results supporting Einstein's general relativity.
International Scientific Fame
Becomes internationally famous after eclipse observations are widely reported as confirming general relativity.
Ether and Relativity Lecture
Delivers the lecture Ether and the Theory of Relativity, redefining the concept in gravitational terms.
Leiden Special Professorship
Begins official duties as special professor at Leiden University.
Anti-Relativity Campaign
Publicly confronts organized attacks on relativity amid growing political and antisemitic hostility.
First Arrival in New York
Arrives in New York during his first visit to the United States, including lectures and fundraising.
Royal Society Foreign Membership
Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society.
Manchester Honorary Doctorate and Relativity Lecture
Receives an honorary Doctor of Science degree from the University of Manchester and lectures on relativity.
Hebrew University Fundraising Tour
Uses his first American visit to support fundraising for the future Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Nobel Prize
Receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for contributions to theoretical physics, particularly his explanation of the law governing the photoelectric effect.
Nobel Prize in Physics
Awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical physics, especially the law of the photoelectric effect.
Princeton Stafford Little Lectures
Delivers four Stafford Little Lectures explaining special and general relativity.
Kyoto Relativity Lecture
Explains how he developed the theory of relativity in a lecture at Kyoto University.
Early Unified Field Program
Begins sustained attempts to combine gravitation and electromagnetism within a single field framework.
Japan Lecture Tour
Travels through Japan giving lectures and public talks on relativity and modern physics.
The Meaning of Relativity
The Meaning of Relativity is published from the four lectures Einstein delivered at Princeton in May 1921.
Jerusalem Relativity Lecture
Lectures in French on relativity during his visit to British Mandate Palestine.
Jerusalem German Lecture
Gives a second Jerusalem lecture on relativity, this time in German.
Madrid Academy Corresponding Membership
Becomes a corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Exact, Physical and Natural Sciences in Madrid.
Madrid Honorary Doctorate
Receives an honorary doctorate in science from the University of Madrid.
Pour le Merite for Sciences and Arts
Is admitted to the Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts.
Nobel Lecture
Delivers his Nobel lecture on fundamental ideas and problems of relativity.
Leiden Research Stay
Spends an extended period in Leiden amid political threats in Germany, continuing scientific work.
American Academy Foreign Honorary Membership
Accepts election as a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Bose Paper Translation
Translates Satyendra Nath Bose's paper on Planck's law into German and arranges its publication.
Bose-Einstein Condensation Prediction
Predicts that ideal bosonic particles can accumulate in the lowest quantum state at low temperature.
Bose-Einstein Statistics
Extends Bose's statistical method from photons to particles of an ideal gas.
Einstein Tower Inauguration
The Einstein Tower begins operation as a solar observatory designed to test relativistic effects.
Copley Medal
Awarded the Royal Society's Copley Medal for relativity and contributions to quantum theory.
Hebrew University Administrative Council
Joins the administrative council of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Quantum Mechanics Critique Begins
Engages critically with the emerging matrix and wave formulations of quantum mechanics.
Second Quantum Gas Paper
Publishes further work on the quantum theory of the ideal monatomic gas.
South America Lecture Tour
Tours Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil, giving lectures and meeting scientific and civic audiences.
Royal Astronomical Society Gold Medal
Receives the Royal Astronomical Society Gold Medal for relativity and the theory of gravitation.
Einstein-Szilard Refrigerator Work
Works with Leo Szilard on safer refrigerator designs without moving mechanical parts.
Rupp Radiation Experiments
Collaborates with Emil Rupp on proposed tests of whether atomic radiation behaves as waves or quanta.
Schrodinger Wave Mechanics Discussion
Studies and discusses Schrödinger's wave mechanics while questioning its physical interpretation.
Bohr-Einstein Quantum Debate
Challenges Niels Bohr with thought experiments testing the completeness of quantum mechanics.
Fifth Solvay Conference
Participates in the fifth Solvay Conference and debates the interpretation of quantum mechanics.
Motion from Field Equations
Investigates with Jakob Grommer whether particle motion can follow directly from gravitational field equations.
Princeton Research Professorship Invitation
Receives an invitation to accept a research professorship at Princeton University.
Helen Dukas Becomes Assistant
Employs Helen Dukas as his secretary and assistant, beginning a long professional association.
Einstein-Szilard Refrigerator Patent
Patent work with Leo Szilard advances an absorption refrigerator using electromagnetic pumping concepts.
Teleparallel Unified Field Theory
Develops a unified-field approach using distant parallelism, also called teleparallel geometry.
Max Planck Medal
Receives the inaugural Max Planck Medal for outstanding achievement in theoretical physics.
Unified Field Theory Publication
Publishes a widely publicized unified-field theory based on teleparallel geometry.
ETH Zurich Honorary Doctorate
Receives an honorary Doctor of Science degree from ETH Zurich.
First Caltech Winter Visit
Begins an extended academic visit to the California Institute of Technology.
Sixth Solvay Conference
Attends the sixth Solvay Conference and continues discussions on quantum theory and field physics.
Oxford Honorary Doctorate
Receives an honorary Doctor of Science degree from the University of Oxford.
Expanding Universe Paper
Adopts an expanding cosmological model and abandons the need for his earlier static-universe construction.
Oxford Rhodes Lectures
Gives three Rhodes Memorial Lectures on relativity, cosmology and his latest work in theoretical physics.
Prix Jules Janssen
Receives the Prix Jules Janssen for distinguished work in astronomy and astrophysics.
Static Universe Abandoned
Einstein abandons the need for a static cosmological model after cosmic expansion becomes established, leaving the cosmological constant without its original motivation.
Leopoldina Membership
Becomes a member of the German Academy of Natural Scientists Leopoldina.
Einstein-de Sitter Model
With Willem de Sitter, proposes a simple expanding cosmological model with zero cosmological constant.
Institute for Advanced Study Appointment
Accepts appointment to the newly founded Institute for Advanced Study.
Leaves Prussian Academy
Resigns from the Prussian Academy of Sciences after deciding not to return to Nazi Germany.
Oxford Lecture on Theoretical Physics
Lectures at Oxford on the methods and foundations of theoretical physics.
Permanent Move to Princeton
Settles in the United States after the Nazi rise to power and joins the Institute for Advanced Study.
Renounces German Citizenship
Renounces German citizenship after the Nazi seizure of power while retaining Swiss citizenship.
Josiah Willard Gibbs Lecture
Delivers the Gibbs Lecture on an elementary proof of the equivalence of mass and energy.
On the Method of Theoretical Physics
Publishes reflections on how fundamental theoretical physics develops from principles and mathematical structure.
EPR Paper
Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen publish their argument that quantum mechanics may not provide a complete description of physical reality.
Franklin Medal
Receives the Franklin Medal in recognition of his work in relativity and the photoelectric effect.
Einstein-Rosen Bridge
With Nathan Rosen, studies bridge solutions in general relativity connecting two sheets of spacetime.
US Declaration of Intention
Files a declaration of intention to become a citizen of the United States.
Gravitational Lensing
Publishes a calculation showing how a foreground star can gravitationally lens light from a background star.
Gravitational Wave Debate
Einstein and Nathan Rosen initially question whether exact gravitational waves exist, then recognise that a troublesome singularity is a coordinate effect rather than a physical obstruction.
Einstein-Rosen Waves
Einstein and Rosen publish a corrected treatment of cylindrical gravitational waves, demonstrating that exact wave solutions can exist within general relativity.
Einstein-Infeld-Hoffmann Collaboration
Works with Leopold Infeld and Banesh Hoffmann on deriving equations of motion from general relativity.
On Gravitational Waves Published
Einstein and Rosen publish a corrected paper showing cylindrical gravitational-wave solutions.
Einstein-Infeld-Hoffmann Equations
Publishes work deriving approximate equations of motion for gravitating bodies from general relativity.
Evolution of Physics Published
Publishes The Evolution of Physics with Leopold Infeld for a broad readership.
Einstein-Szilard Letter
Signs the Einstein-Szilard letter warning President Roosevelt about uranium chain reactions and possible powerful bombs.
Second Roosevelt Letter
Writes again to President Roosevelt urging stronger attention to uranium research developments.
Third Roosevelt Letter
Sends another letter to Roosevelt concerning the need for effective action on uranium research.
United States Citizenship
Becomes a United States citizen while retaining Swiss citizenship.
Final Roosevelt Letter Prepared
Signs a letter drafted by Leo Szilard seeking a presidential meeting on nuclear policy; Roosevelt dies before receiving it.
Postwar Atomic Weapons Advocacy
After the atomic bombings, speaks publicly about the political and ethical dangers of nuclear weapons.
Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists
Helps form and chairs the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists to promote public education and international control.
General Field Theory Draft
Presents a new draft of field equations for his continuing general field theory program.
Atomic Scientists Public Education Campaign
Supports public education campaigns on atomic energy, disarmament and international control.
Generalized Theory of Gravitation
Publishes a generalized theory of gravitation during his continuing search for a unified field theory.
Autobiographical Notes
Publishes Autobiographical Notes, reflecting on the development of his scientific ideas and philosophy.
Later Unified Field Review
Presents and revises his mature attempts to construct a unified classical field theory.
Out of My Later Years
Publishes a collection of essays on science, society, philosophy and public affairs.
Unified Field Equations Refinement
Refines asymmetric-field approaches intended to combine gravitation and electromagnetism.
Presidency of Israel Declined
Declines the offer to become president of Israel, citing lack of aptitude and experience for official duties.
Death of Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein dies in Princeton, New Jersey, aged 76.
Russell-Einstein Manifesto Signed
Signs Bertrand Russell's appeal warning of nuclear war and urging peaceful resolution of international disputes.
Editorial provenance
Sources and editorial review
Compiled and edited by World History Database. This specialist collection brings together 338 structured Albert Einstein records. The scientific explainer pages add contextual interpretation and link to established institutional and scholarly sources for further checking.
Last reviewed: 3 October 2026. Read the editorial method, sources and provenance, or submit a correction.